POMPEII&

HERCULANEUMLOCAL POLITICAL LIFE

Cities of Vesuvius

Terms and Concepts

Aediles Two lower ranking magistrates of Pompeii

Basilica Lawcourt

Beneficia Benefits

Cognomen Family name

Comitia Voting Assembly of citizens – used to vote for the aediles & duumviri.

Comitium Voting hall

Curiales / Decuriones Members of the council

Cursus honorum Sequence of offices / ladder of political advancement

Decuriones Councillors

Defensor coloniae A distinguished local person who looked after the legal interests of the colony

Duumvir/duovir One of two officers or magistrates jointly exercising the same public function.

Duumviri iure dicundo The two men fir administering justice

Epigraphic Study of inscriptions or writing

Fasces Bundles of rods

Flamen Priest assigned to a state-supported god or goddess

Gens nomen Clan name

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Vesuvius

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Lectio Census

Haruspex diviner

Lex Iulia Municipalis Law of Julius Caesar (45BC)

Lex Petronia Law of the early 1st C AD that allowed for the legal appointment of a Prefect for the Administration of Justice in an emergency

Libraries Copyist

Lictores Two guards

Municipium The second highest ranking Roman city.

Praecox herald

Praefectus Extraordinary magistracy

Praenomen Personal nane

Princeps ‘first man of the colony’ – an outstanding individual

Programmata Election slogans

Quinquennalis In the fifth year

Ordo decurionum Town council

Scriptores Professional sign painters

Tibicen Flute player

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Viatores Two messengers

Vici Wards that the city of Pompeii was divided into that served as voting districts

Roman Society – Pompeii & Herculaneum:Political Life

Pompeii, as a Roman colony since the Social war of 80 BC, was a self-administering municipality. Its form of local government followed the standard rules laid down in a law of Julius Caesar, the Lex Iulia Municipalis (45BC), and subsequent legislation. The legislation specified both how a town council (ordo decurionum) would be established and how councillors (decuriones), would be chosen. It set out how local magistrates, the principal town officials, would be elected by the Roman citizens in a township such as the Colonia Veneria Cornelia Pompeianorum. Herculaneum was governed in the same manner as a municipum, with its own town council and elected officials.

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Figure 1.10 Pompeii Political Life

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MAGISTRATES AT POMPEIIOffice Numb

erLength of

officeAuthorit

yElected by Functions

Duumviri iyre dicundo

Two men for the Administration of Justice

Every 5th year called: Quinquennales

Five yearly men

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2

One Year

One Year every 5 years

Potestas

Official power

Potestas

Censorial power

The people (populous) each

year in an electoral

assembly (comita)

Candidates must have been aediles

first

Judicial:Presided in court

Administrative:Presided over the Town Council

Financial:Oversight of revenues, Taxation

Revision of citizenship and council rolls

Aediles 2 One Year Potestas The people (populous) each

year in an electoral

assembly (comita)

Care of temples, streets. Public buildings Hold games

Emergency OfficePraefectus iure dicundoPrefect for the Administration of Justice

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Sole office

Short period Potestas Appointed by the Town

Council (curia) in an emergency

Wide ranging emergency powers

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Figure 1.11 Magistrates table

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According to...Hurley, Medcalf, Murray & RolphThe city of Pompeii was divided into wards (vici) and these served as voting districts. The Imperial government rarely interfered with town politics, meaning Pompeii in effect was governed by a group of wealthy municipal aristocrats.

HerculaneumThe political organisation of Herculaneum was similar to that of Pompeii. It was also run by two duumviri. Its aediles, like those at Pompeii, supervised the markets and public works.

Epigraphic SourcesMost of our knowledge of Pompeii’s political organisation is drawn from epigraphic sources such as programmata. These indicate that the people of Pompeii enthusiastically participated in the elections.

Building inscriptions also provide us with other information. Two very generous duumviri, Valgus and Porcius, built a small theatre for the use of Pompeiians. It was part of the expectation of people in public office that they build facilities for the people at their own expense.

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Evidence

Cities of Vesuvius

The Duumviri duumviri iure dicundo (the two men for administering justice)

Two chief magistrates. Stood at the summit of political lifeSmall town equivalent of the consuls at Rome, BUT

o They had no military powerso Solely concerned with the government of their

local community. Elected in March each year by the populous (Roman citizens) in a voting assembly, comitia.Took office on 1st July for one year.

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Almost 3,000 election notices have survived on the walls of Pompeii, and more than half of them are for the election in the last year of the town’s existence. All of the trades and industries of Pompeii are represented. These include the guilds of porters, bath-stokers, muleteers, even schoolchildren are represented...The vibrancy and number of election notices show a town alive and well, coping with

According to ... Paul Wilkinson ‘Pompeii the Last Day’ Source 2.12

Questions – based on sources 2.11 and 2.12

1. What would the workers listed in Source 2.12 expect in return for supporting a political candidate at the local elections?

2. According to inscription A, why was the wall built?

3. In inscription B, what do you think is meant by ‘let the contract’?

4. In inscription C, what have the duumviri given permission to be built? Why

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Responsibilities:o Presided over the courts of the towno Public moneyo Calling together the town council (ordo decurionum) and presiding over

its meetingso Carrying out the decrees of the council

Expected to:o Use their own funds to benefit the communityo Provide spectacles for the people at their own expense

Clothing:o Purple bordered toga (toga praetexta)

The Duumviri

Staffing for EACH one:

o Two guards (lictores) who carried bundles of rods (fasces) without axes on official occasions

o Two messengers (viatores) who delivered written orders

o An attendant (accensus) who summoned people to court and the council members to

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According to... Brian and Lazer Source 2.13 ‘This staff was probably filled by the chief magistrates’ own clients and freedmen and

Cities of Vesuvius

their meetings. The attendant would be present at both the court and the council meetings to maintain order and announce the time

o Copyist (libraries) to write down letters and documents o Diviner (haruspex) a man trained to practice a form of divinationo Herald (praecox)o Flute player (tibicen)

Had special places assigned to them in the theatre and at the games

The AedilesTwo lower ranking magistrates Clothing:

o Purple bordered toga (toga praetexta)Responsibilities:

o Day to day administration of the towno Supervised the markets o Took care of the templeso Took care of the streets

The AedilesGranted permits to:

o Stall holders near the amphitheatre o Others who occupied public land o Erect altarso Make votive offerings displayed in temples

Provided the people with public games and paid much of the cost themselveso This was in the hope that their generosity as aediles would be

remembered when they stood for office of duumvirs. Staffing for the aediles:According to Brian and Lazer, ‘the cost of the staff for the two aediles was 3,000 sesterces per year.

o Secretary (scriba) o Diviner (haruspex) a man trained to practice a form of divination

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Image: Lictores with fasces

Source 2.14 Pompeii House of Vettii

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o Herald (praecox)o Flute player (tibicen)

Four slaves would have been assigned to them and they would have acted like police in the townSlaves preceded the aediles carrying torchesHad special places assigned to them in the theatre and at the games

Priesthoods

Roman politicians usually held prestigious positions in the state and imperial cults as part of their PATH OF OFFICES (cursus honorum). All political meetings were accompanied by religious rites.

The Voting Assembly ( Comitium )

WHAT: Assembly of citizens

PURPOSE: Voted for the duumviri and the aediles

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According to...

Brennan & Lazer

‘Politics and the state

religion were intertwined.’

Source 2.15

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HOW: STEP 1Voters were divided into ‘tribes’ that may have been termed curiae/tribus.

STEP 2Candidates for the offices of duumviri and aediles presented themselves to the electors as fixed pairs in election team.

STEP 3The tribes each voted separately

STEP 4When two candidates for office had received a majority in that tribe, voting was stopped.

STEP 5The vote was recorded for each tribe in turn and the candidates who secured the group votes of a majority of tribes were declared elected.

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According to...Brennan & Lazer Source 2.16We do not know what they were called in Pompeii and Herculaneum or whether the ‘tribes’ were based on different districts in the town.

According to...Paavo Castren

The probable division of the city was into four electoral districts and

these made up the tribes.

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The

comitium: the how and the where on Voting

Roman practice was to divide the citizens into their voting units and into

voting pens.

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The archaeologist Amedo Maiuri An unroofed enclosure situated on the south-east side of the forum of Pompeii (rebuilt after the earthquake of AD 62 was the voting hall, comitium. Source 2.18

VS

The classical historian...Lawrence Richardson JR Source 2.19The comitium was too small. He argues it is possible that the large number of voters would have assembled in the theatre or amphitheatre.

According to...Brennan & Lazer

Perhaps they were marshalled with wooden barricades for voting purposes in the open space of the

Cities of Vesuvius

To date there has not been a comitium identified at Herculaneum.

The comitium only met annually to elect officials. It did not have any other meetings to discuss policy and only occasionally may have voted on matters relating to the running of the town. The comitium was not a democratic assembly of the people. It had no significant day-to-day role on the government.

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Source 2.21 Comitium at Pompeii

Source 2.22 South-east side location: Comitium at Pompeii

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The Ordo decurionum , Town Council Who: Body of about 80-100 men chosen by a census of those men who were wealthy and influential.

Qualifications: Normally had to be over 25 years of age

Have considerable wealth. Brennan suggests an amount of over 10,000 sesterces as being necessary.

Members were not elected by the people. Usually those who had served as aediles joined the council automatically.

The Curia, The Council building Located in one of the buildings on the south side of the forum at Pompeii, close to the lawcourt, basilica).

It has been suggested that at Herculaneum the town council met across the wide main street from the lawcourt building, but neither site has been fully excavated.

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Source 2.24 Curia at Pompeii

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The quinquennales, The 5 yearly officials Every five years the duumiviri of Pompeii would hold a census (lectio) to revise the roll of the town council. On the fifth year the duumiviri would be called, the two qunquennales.

The quinquennales, The 5 yearly officials As they were entrusted with the power to revise the council roll, the quinquennalis commanded the greatest respect.

During the 5 yearly revision, Councillors (decuriones) could be struck off the roll if they were found to be disqualified.

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Source 2.23 South-east side location Curia at Pompeii

According to ... Brennan & Lazer‘Holding office as a duumvir quinquennalis was considered to be the fitting culmination of a brilliant career in local government.’ Source 2.25

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Grounds for Disqualification

BankruptcyCourt convictionBringing disgrace upon yourself

Vacancies

Only through death orRemoval of the unworthy

Choosing the new

The duumviri elected any new decuriones.

Requirements

High level of wealth (expected to spend their money on the community and be above the lure of bribes Only for freeborn – Liberti, no matter how wealthy were ineligibleCAN NOT BE an stage actor, gladiator trainer or procurers of prostitutes - they were regarded as disreputable and unfit

Wealthy owners of businesses and proprietors of landed estates and vineyards found their way on to council.

The minimum age for membership was 25 years of age, but on occasion the children of wealthy men were enrolled as a special mark of honour or if they had used their money to benefit their fellow citizens.

We also know of three other children from prominent families who were enrolled in the council.

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Evidence at Pompeii

An inscription reveals that a 6 year old, Numerius Popidius Celsinus, was enrolled in the ordo decurionum

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Emergency Office - the praefectus iure dicundo An extraordinary magistracy – could take the place of the duumviri for a short time, in a time of emergency.

There appears to have been a delay in holding elections in AD 62, after the earthquake destroyed much of the infrastructure of Pompeii. The Town Council appointed the duumvir quinquennalis of 60/61, C.Cuspius Pansa the Elder, to be praefectus in the emergency situation.

HONORARY TITLES

Tribunus militum a populo – Military

tribune by popular choice

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How do we know that? An inscription on the Ampitheatre at Pompeii, after the earthquake damage of AD 62:

Gaius Cuspius Pansa, son of Gaiu, the father, duumvir with judicial power four times, quinquennial, praefectus with judicial power by decree of the town councillors, in accordance with the

Cities of Vesuvius

Originally signified officer status in the Roman legions. It eventually became an honorary title that signified equestrian status and social importance in a municipality or colony.

Patronus coloniae – Patron of the colonyAwarded to a distinguished individual by the town council as a mark of honour. A Patronus would represent the colony in dealings with the government at Rome and speak on behalf of citizens.

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How do we know that? An inscription on the Ampitheatre at Pompeii, after the earthquake damage of AD 62:

Gaius Cuspius Pansa, son of Gaiu, the father, duumvir with judicial power four times, quinquennial, praefectus with judicial power by decree of the town councillors, in accordance with the

The Pompeian Marcus Holconius Rufus who was both duumvir and

military tribune, was honoured with a statue at Pompeii showing him in military dress uniform, although he

was not a serving officer. Source 2.28

Some Names

In Pompeii: Marcus Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus

In Herculaneum: Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus Source 2.29

Source 2.30 Proconsul Marcus Balbus

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Princeps coloniae – First Man of the colonyUnofficial title is used in graffito to indicate an outstanding individual. It has no official standing whatsoever. The title Princeps was used by Augustus and Tiberius to stress their singular place at the top of society so it had a very powerful connotation.

Defensor coloniae It is used informally for a distinguished local person who looked after the legal interests of the colony. He might offer assistance to individuals from the community involved in court cases, or protect them from visiting officials.

Political PatronagePolitics was dominated by the patronage of poorer citizens and of particular social and business groups by members of powerful, wealthy elite. In a way similar to Rome itself, powerful local Pompeian’s offered both protection and assistance to individuals.

They assisted those who sought advancement in political office or who desired to make connections and alliances that would help them in business or in social life. In return, the patrons expected support in elections and public recognition of their exalted status. The patron, patronus, could expect support from his clients, clients. Every Patronus sought to outdo his rivals in the size and extent of his supporters, clientele.

The number of clients who came to your house in the morning, or who accompanied you to the forum, or who cheered you in the theatre, indicated your importance. Patronage might also be extended to separate groups within the community or to the whole populates, whose support was won by offering benefits, beneficia.

Benefits Included

Provision of foodGladiatorial entertainments

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Public works Projects such as theatresTemples Public Baths

Some building projects might have been inititated by decree of the decuriones, and paid for by public funds, but the commemorative inscriptions stress the role of the duumviri who supervised the work. Other inscriptions make it clear that duumviri paid for the work themselves as a gift to their fellow citizens.

The great clans of PompeiiUpper class people in Roman society usually had three names

A personal name – PRAENOMEN

A clan name – GENS NOMEN or just NOMEN

Family name – COGNOMEN

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Evidence

The hot baths (thermae) of the Forum were built by the duumvir L. Caesius and the aediles C. Occius and L.

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He is normally addressed by his family name, Sabinus, nut his nomen shows that he was part of the Epidus clan. This was an extremely prestigious clan who could trace their ancestry back to Pre-Roman times in the region.

These clans dominated the political life at Pompeii and Herculaneum. They used their wealth and influence to gain election to the chief magistracies and selection to council.

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True ExampleThe prominent Pompeian Marcus Epidus Sabinus

Marcus (personal name) Epidus (clan name) Sabinus (family name)PRAENOMEN NOMEN COGNOMEN

Questions1. Describe the main features of the magistracy in Pompeii.

2. Using sources 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20, present an argument in favour of or against the use of a comitium for voting in Pompeii.

3. Duumviri often made it very clear that they paid for particular events or buildings from their own money. Using the sources, explain the reasons they may have had for doing this.

4. Assess why it is so important for an upper class Roman to use their three names?

5. Using a selection of the above Sources and your own knowledge of other sources, describe what the evidence shows about politics in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

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Ancient History Sourcebook: Inscriptions From Pompeii

[Davis Introduction]

There are almost no literary remains from Antiquity possessing greater human interest than these inscriptions scratched on the walls of Pompeii (destroyed 79 A.D.). Their character is extremely varied, and they illustrate in a keen and vital way the life of a busy, luxurious, and, withal, tolerably typical, city of some 25,000 inhabitants in the days of the Flavian Caesars. Most of these inscriptions carry their own message with little need of a commentary. Perhaps those of the greatest importance are the ones relating to local politics. It is very evident that the so-called "monarchy" of the Emperors had not involved the destruction of political life, at least in the provincial towns.

Wall Inscriptions

1. Twenty pairs of gladiators provided by Quintus Monnius Rufus are to fight at Nola May First, Second, and Third, and there will be a hunt.

2. Thirty pairs of gladiators provided by Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius quinquennial duumvir, together with their substitutes, will fight at Pompeii on November 24, 25, 26. There will be a hunt. Hurrah for Maius the Quinquennial! Bravo, Paris!

3. The gladiatorial troop of the Aedile Aulius Suettius Certus will fight at Pompeii May 31. There will be a hunt, and awnings will be provided.

4. Twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens perpetual priest of Nero, son of the Emperor, and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Valens his son, will fight at Pompeii April 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. There will be a big hunt and awnings. Aemilius Celer wrote this by the light of the moon.

5. The dyers request the election of Postumius Proculus as Aedile.

6. Vesonius Primus urges the election of Gnaeus Helvius as Aedile, a man worthy of pubic office.

7. Vesonius Primus requests the election of Gaius Gavius Rufus as duumvir, a man who will serve the public interest---do elect him, I beg of you.

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Cities of Vesuvius 8. Primus and his household are working for the election of Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus as Aedile.

9. Make Lucius Caeserninus quinquennial duumvir of Nuceria, I beg you: he is a good man.

10. His neighbors request the election of Tiberius Claudius Verus as duumvir.

11. The worshipers of Isis as a body ask for the election of Gnaeus Helvias Sabinus as Aedile.

12. The inhabitants of the Campanian suburb ask for the election of Marcus Epidius Sabinus as aedile.

13. At the request of the neighbors Suedius Clemens, most upright judge, is working for the election of Marcus Epidius Sabinus, a worthy young man, as duumvir with judicial authority. He begs you to elect him.

14. The sneak thieves request the election of Vatia as Aedile.

15. The whole company of late drinkers favor Vatia.

16. The whole company of late risers favor Vatia.

17. Inn to let. Triclinium [dining room] with three couches.

18. Here slept Vibius Restitutus all by himself his heart filled with longings for his Urbana.

19. To rent from the first day of next July, shops with the floors over them, fine upper chambers, and a house, in the Arnius Pollio block, owned by Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius. Prospective lessees may apply to Primus, slave of Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius.

20. To let, for the term of five years, from the thirteenth day of next August to the thirteenth day of the sixth August thereafter, the Venus bath, fitted up for the best people, shops, rooms over shops, and second-story apartments in the property owned by Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius.

21. A copper pot has been taken from this shop. Whoever brings it back will receive 65 sesterces. If any one shall hand over the thief he will be rewarded.

22. He who has never been in love can be no gentleman.

23. Health to you, Victoria, and wherever you are may you sneeze sweetly.

24. Restitutus has many times deceived many girls.

25. Romula keep tryst here with Staphylus.26

Cities of Vesuvius 26. If any man seek /My girl from me to turn, /On far-off mountains bleak, /May Love the scoundrel burn!

27. If you a man would be, /If you know what love can do, /Have pity and suffer me /With welcome to come to you.

28. At Nuceria, I won 8552 denarii by gaming---fair play!

29. On October 17 Puteolana had a litter of three males and two females.

30. The smallest evil if neglected, will reach the greatest proportions.

31. If you want to waste your time, scatter millet and pick it up again.

Copies of Business Transactions on Wax Tablets

32. Umbricia Januaria declares that she has received from Lucius Caecilius Jucundus 11,039 sesterces which sum came into the hands of Lucius Caecilius Jucundus by agreement as the proceeds of an auction sale for Umbricia Januaria, the commission due him having been deducted. Done at Pompeii, on the 12th of December, in the consulship of Lucius Duvius and Publius Clodius. [56 A.D.]. (Many witnesses follow).

33. On the 18th of June in the duumvirate of Lucius Veranius Hypsaeus and Lucius Albucius Justus, I, Privatus, slave of the colony of Pompeii, declared in writing that I had received from Lucius Caecilius Jucundus 1,675 sesterces, and previous to this day, on June 6, I received 1000 sesterces as rent for the public pasture. Done at Pompeii in the consulship of Gnaeus Fonteius and Gaius Vipstanus [59 A.D.]. (Many witnesses follow).

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