Helen Webb

Student (SID) Number: 1236168/1

Suffolk- Anglia Ruskin University

Faculty of Education

MA (Education)

Module Code: MOD001539

Module Title: Research Methodology for Learning and Teaching

Submitted May 2013

Contents Page

Part 1: A Critique of a Dissertation

Study Purpose 5

Study Design 6

Organisation of Dissertation 7

Informed Consent 7

Data Collection and Analysis 8

Conclusions 11

Summary 12

References and Bibliography 13

Part 2: A Major Project Proposal

The Title 14

The Context 14

The Purpose 15

Hypothesis 15

Literature and Theory 16

Research Methodology 16

Research Methods 16

Ethical Implications 17

Resources and Timeline 18

The Report and the Audience 19

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References and Bibliography 20

Part 3: A Critical Evaluation of the Design Process of Writing a Major Project Proposal

Introduction 21

Methodology

Quantitative versus Qualitative Research 21

Phenomenology and Positivism 22

Action Research 23

The Experimental Style 24

Ethnography and Ethnographic Style of Research 24

Methods

Interviewing 25

Observation (Participant and Non-Participant) 27

Journal Writing 28

Questionnaires 28

Documentary Evidence 29

Literature Search 30

Ethics 30

Permission 30

Confidentiality and Anonymity 31

Intellectual Property 31

Bias 31

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Participant Issues 32

The Cost/Benefit Ratio 32

References 33

4

Part 1: A Critique of a Published Paper / Dissertation / Article.

Study Purpose

The research question was clearly stated; “Towards a learning school: A reflection and

evaluation of the role of the head teacher in creating and implementing a learning culture.”

However, the focus of the study is not clear. Walker (2007, p.iv) explains that “the study

traces the introduction and development of the learning culture and the implementation of

such a culture into the local community. The core of the study focuses on the introduction of

a whole staff Continuing Professional Development program with an emphasis on the work

of the head teacher as the main training provider.”

On page 2 Walker then explains that “this study will outline, discuss and evaluate the eight

Learning Initiatives introduced at the start of the academic year in September 2006.” These

eight initiatives are not listed until page 14. It is also worth noting that Blaxter et al (1996,

p.35) advise that “in a small-scale research project you are unlikely to be able to handle

more than two or three main research questions.”

I feel that whilst the title of this research is valid, the scope of content that Walker is aiming

to cover in this dissertation is vast and unfocused. Blaxter et al (1996, p. 25) highlights that

“one of the key skills in choosing a topic is to be able to pick one of the right size: not too big,

not too small, but doable within the time, space and resources available”. The

implementation and success of one strand, with clear aims and objectives, would have been

an easier and more logical task. Bell (2005, p.235) also states that it is important to also

“draw attention to any limitations of study at this stage too.”

It is clear that the research is purposeful, both to Walker and the community and is within

the capabilities and resources of the researcher. Walker (2007, p.4) states herself that the

research “will lead to the introduction and implementation of a policy for learning and the

research findings will inform the school’s application for Training School Status and Specialist

School Status. As a result of this work, the school will be established as a hub for staff

training and Continuing Professional Development... Most importantly, the work will lead

the school out of the Ofsted ‘serious weaknesses’ category.” Indeed Walker does lead the

school to a satisfactory Ofsted rating and does appear to have established staff training into

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the ethos of the school, however, there is no further discussion of a policy for learning or

the school’s application for Training School Status or Specialist School Status.

Study Design

Walker (2007, p.2) explains that the structure of her work will be based on George

Gerbner’s model of communication (1956). “Gerbner focuses on the significance of the

content (what) and form (how) of the message and how the sender of the message can

control and alter the emphasis placed on each.” Walker (2007, p.3) continues that “this idea

is useful when analysing and evaluating the role of the head teacher in this journey

described; what will be the essence of the learning culture and how will this be lead and

managed?”

In discussing the “What”, Walker gives lengthy explanations to her introduction of coaching

triads and the Masters Degree Programme. When describing the “How” Walker explains

her take on Transformational Leadership and how she used the Ofsted Action Plan (Nov

2003) and School Improvement Plan as a way of informing discussion with staff. She also

describes her journey to create a school identity. These accounts were interesting to read

and Walker’s enthusiasm as a new head teacher employed to bring about change is evident

throughout her writing. However, as much of this writing is based upon her own learning

Journal, a deeper level of reflection and questioning would have been beneficial. Kember

(2000, p.43) explains that in a reflective journal “the researcher should regularly and

systematically reflect critically on the effects of the project and how it is progressing.” It

would also have been useful for the author to ensure that each section is tied in closely to

the title of the project.

Walker (2007, p.35) justifies the selection of action research as her chosen methodology as

“this seems to be the most appropriate for the small scale school context were an outcome

which improves practice is desired.” She also justifies well her use of a learning journal.

Walker lists on page 36 the research tools that she intends to use but gives no further

justification or discussion of these methods, which again would have been useful to include.

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Organisation of Dissertation

The dissertation was well written, with appropriate language and on the whole it was an

enjoyable read. The use of a contents page and sub-headings aided the organisation of the

majority of the write up. I feel that the literature review section would have benefitted

from further subheadings in order to chunk the information into understandable and

focused sections. There are a few typing errors throughout the text that would have been

spotted with more thorough proof-reading. For example on page 26 the third paragraph

begins “The firsta task was for the staff to ercognise...” Blaxter et al (1996, p.226) point out

that “errors will detract from your ability to get ideas across, and your readers are likely to

be irritated, amused or put off.”

Relevant background literature was reviewed and Walker was able to demonstrate a good

understanding of the academia surrounding her research and this gave weight to her

discussions. However, not all her referencing conformed to the Harvard style of referencing

stipulated in the Suffolk Anglia Ruskin University handbook for new students. Specifically,

not all quotations were cited in the bibliography, fully referenced with page numbers or

presented in the appropriate format.

Informed Consent

Walker (2007, p.42) states that “a rationale and statement of value of the research needs to

be established for all parties when involved at the outset... When working with children, I

would send a letter home to all parents whose children may be interviewed, respondents in a

questionnaires, [sic] tape recorded, filmed or photographed.” It would have been useful to

see a copy of this consent letter or the “rationale and statement of value” in the appendix as

although Walker discusses what she should do with regard to informed consent, she does

not make it explicit as to what she actually did.

However, despite this issue, Walker (2007, p.43) did state that “the students involved will

have the right to withdraw at any time, the right to confidentiality and anonymity and the

right to protected from harm.” In terms of the final write up, it does appear that the

students involved are anonymous and they do not seem to have suffered any harm from

their participation in this study. Walker (2007, p.44) also recommended “that colleagues on

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the Masters degree course at Methwold High School establish a set of guidelines for dealing

with ethical issues as a group for consistency and protection.” This is further evidence that

Walker has at least given careful thought to the importance of ethical considerations.

Data Collection and Analysis

Walker (2007, p.1) describes the context of the school, its site and intake of students in

detail. This would allow for valid comparisons with other studies or relevant comparison

with other establishments.

Walker provides analysis and evaluation on the impact of the ‘learning school’ ethos in six

sections.

Analysis Section 1: What Makes a Good Lesson?

In the first section Walker discusses the results of a student shadowing exercise and further

interviews with students. She recalls her own experience following just one year 7 student

and describes the student’s opinion of what a good lesson and teacher is. Walker (2007,

p.48) claims that “it would appear that our work on creating a learning culture was having

an impact if students were able to articulate their learning experiences in such a way.”

Indeed this is true but this could have also been an example of an able student capable of

eloquent discussion even prior to the introduction of the head teacher’s new initiatives.

Walker also fails to acknowledge that the student may have been eager to “please” the

interviewing Head Teacher and given a response that she thought would be the “correct”

one as opposed to her own view. Cohen et al (2007, p.150) also point out further sources of

bias during interview could be a “tendency for the interviewer to seek answers that support

preconceived notions.”

Walker’s colleagues were also involved with shadowing students in year 8, 9 and 10,

however, Walker does not make clear how many students were shadowed nor does she

provide us with any further information of these students. Presumably, these students

were randomly selected, but again the selection technique was not discussed. Walker does

acknowledge that she and her colleagues probably gained more from the shadowing

experience than the students and this clearly had impact on her future decision making, but

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it is always worth giving caution to the views of such a select few students which can vary

drastically from the masses.

On discussing the results of this student shadowing exercise, Walker (2007, p.46) states that

“as a result of this involvement, the students have become more active, independent

learners and many more making a positive contribution to the community of the school and

beyond.” This is a bold statement and appears to be entirely anecdotal. It would be

beneficial to provide evidence in the form of specific examples either from the results of

interview or observation to back up this statement.

Analysis Section 2: Every Child Matters

In the second section, Walker reviews the results of a student survey carried out by a

freelance Enterprise Consultant. This use of an external body provides objectivity to the

exercise. The survey was given to just one form group in only two of the five available year

groups, however, this limitation is acknowledged by Walker. Walker does not provide actual

numbers of student involvement but does state that it represents about 20% of students in

each year group. Again, whilst this does provide a sample of data to work with, a higher

percentage would allow for her arguments to be more reliable. I felt that the

questionnaire’s optional responses “makes me think”, “sometimes makes me think “and “I

find easy” left the respondent open to much subjectivity in their interpretation. I think that

further interview or the use of an open question may have been useful here.

Analysis Section 3: The Views of Parents

In the third section, Walker analyses responses of a parental questionnaire. She states that

a copy of this questionnaire is in the appendix – which is actually missing from the

dissertation. She indicates that 75 questionnaires were given out to year 7 parents and 56

to year 10 parents and only 25 of each year group were returned. It would have been useful

to know what this was a proportion of the year group as a whole. Walker (2007, p.57)

further claimed that “this made the sample valid within the parameters of the intention”. In

my opinion, this statement is vague.

During data analysis Walker (2007, p58) incorrectly calculated that “78% of responses for

year 7 either agreed or strongly agreed with this statement”. As the correct figure is

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calculated at 76%, this minor error does not impact Walker’s interpretation of the data.

Furthermore, a graphical presentation of responses to questionnaires may also have been

easier to interpret at a glance for the reader.

Walker (2007, p.61) also claimed that the results to question 10 were “statistically

significant”. It would be useful for her to explain what statistical analysis she applied to her

data in order to validate this comment. Cohen et al (2007, p.101) also point out that “a

sample size of thirty is held by many to be the minimum number of cases if researchers plan

to use some sort of statistical analysis on their data.” As I pointed out earlier Walker’s

sample sizes were less than this.

Walker (2007, p.58) surmises why there were more negative responses to the statement

“my child enjoys school” in year 7. Like much of her analysis of parental responses, Walker’s

comments are sensible but are assumptions. She claims “the reason is likely to do with

issues children face on transition from one school to another.” A simple open question at

the end of the questionnaire for parents to elaborate on any of their responses may have

given greater insight and provided evidence to the issue in hand. Kember (2000, p.46-47)

explains that “the most successful questionnaires have both open and closed items. The

closed-response items target issues that are of particular concern or related to project goals.

The open-response items can give the students a chance to clarify or respond in more depth.

They can also comment on anything else considered relevant.”

Analysis Section 4: The In-house Continuing Professional Development Program

Walker (2007, p.iv) explains that “The core of the study focuses on the introduction of a

whole staff Continuing Professional Development program with an emphasis on the work of

the head teacher as the main training provider.” During the evaluative section Walker gives

an interesting account of the success of the coaching triad’s initiative. Walker (2007, p.iv)

explains at the start of her dissertation that “the implementation of an in-house Masters

degree programme as an outreach centre for Anglia Ruskin University is a key element in

establishing the ethos of ‘teachers as learners’.” Despite the importance that Walker

initially gives to the Masters Degree Program she has not thoroughly evaluated the success

of this impressive program. Walker (2007, p.64) merely alludes to it being an “attraction for

staff in today’s competitive market”.

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Walker includes a list of sensible recommendations for a continuing professional

development in West Norfolk including her next steps as a result of this learning journey.

Analysis Section 5: The Skills and Attributes of the Head Teacher

Although Walker illustrates this section of her report with an assessment of her skills and

attributes following a 360° review, she has not actually discussed or evaluated these results

at all. Walker (2007, p.3) claimed herself that the purpose of the study was multi-layered.

“It will identify and discuss styles of management and leadership in a secondary school

context and examine the skills and attributes needed by the head teacher to effect and

manage change.” I am not sure that she has discussed the styles of management and

leadership at all throughout this dissertation.

Analysis Section 6: Ofsted Inspection Report

This is a short and succinct section that summarises the main point of the Ofsted report in

judging the improvement of teaching and learning at the school.

Conclusions

The conclusions of this dissertation were not clear. This issue is compounded by the fact

that the initial aims of the project were neither clear nor focused. Walker (2007, p.2)

explained that “this study will outline, discuss and evaluate the eight Learning Initiatives

introduced at the start of the academic year in September 2006. Only the final three of the

eight initiatives listed at the start of the dissertation were addressed and evaluated to

varying degrees.

Walker (2007, p.2) explained that “the most useful part of this work will be the description of

the journey made by the headteacher in implementing change.” Whilst there is an enjoyable

account of the headteacher’s work during this time period, it was not a thorough reflection

or deep evaluation of the role of the head teacher. More emphasis should have been

placed on the role of the head as the main training provider – as this was the title of the

project.

Walker (2007, p.3-4) also claimed at the start of the dissertation that “a core part of this

study will be the research into and establishment of ways to create an establishment in

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which everyone is a learner and to debate how a ‘learning school’ can be created or

imposed, or whether the culture has to be inherent in the community.” Again, this question

was not answered.

Summary

Overall Strengths Overall Weaknesses

Clear and valid title Aims, objectives and final conclusions were

unclear

Purposeful and relevant research within the

capabilities and resources of the researcher

The scope of the project was too wide

The action research carried out informed the

researchers own practice

Not every section appeared relevant

Appropriate methodology Many accounts from the learning journal

were anecdotal and lacked deep reflection

and thorough evaluation

An enjoyable and interesting report Many unfounded assertions not backed up

by strong evidence

Referencing errors

Errors in the quality of written

communication and arithmetic

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References and Bibliography

Bell, J., (2005) Doing Your Research Project, A Guide for First-time Researchers in Education,

Health and Social Science, 4th Edition, Open University Press

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., and Tight, M. (1996) How to Research, Open University Press

Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison. (2007) Research Methods in Education, 6th Edition,

Routlidge

Kember, D. (2000) Action Learning and Action Research, Improving the Quality of Teaching

and Learning Kogan, Page Ltd

Letts, L., Wilkins, S., Law, M., Stewart, D., Bosch, J., Westmorland, M. (2007) Critical Review

Form – Qualitative Studies (Version 2.0), McMaster University

Suffolk Anglia Ruskin University Post Graduate Research Centre, Handbook for New

Students, Revised December 2010

Walker, D. (2007) Towards a learning school, a reflection and evaluation of the role of the

head teacher in creating and implementing a learning culture, Suffolk-Anglia Ruskin

University Faculty of Education

http://www.okstate.edu/ag/agedcm4h/academic/aged5980a/5980/critique.htm 10/04/13

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Part 2: A Major Project Proposal

The Title

How effective are “switch plenaries” in improving teacher’s ability to assess and

demonstrate pupil progress in lessons?

The Context

In order for OFSTED to give an overall effectiveness rating of “good” or “outstanding”,

teaching must also be observed to be consistently in line with these standards. As such, the

College is currently keen to push all staff to deliver at least consistently “good” lesson

observations.

According to OFSTED, for the quality of teaching to be outstanding teachers must

“systematically and effectively check pupils’ understanding throughout lessons,

anticipating where they may need to intervene and doing so with notable impact on the

quality of learning.”

In the Colleges most recent inspection report (2006, p.4) OFSTED stated that “the best

teaching is soundly based on excellent assessment with good questioning, good use of

individual targets, effective lesson plenaries and rigorous marking... However, assessment is

not consistently used to provide feedback on how students can improve.”

According to OFSTED (2001, p.19) “the best plenaries make a significant contribution to

pupils’ learning” [However...] Plenaries are often too short and teachers frequently are doing

no more than going through the motions of conducting one. Even where plenaries are given

appropriate time, the introduction of extraneous material confuses pupils and diffuses the

impact of the teaching. Sometimes the teacher has attempted to deal with too much

material in the lesson, with a resulting loss of focus in the plenary. Inevitably, the

unsatisfactory plenaries do not get to the heart of what the lesson has been about.”

Personally, I have been teaching Science with a Biology specialism for nine years and I have

always been committed to improve my own and other’s practice. I attended a CPD day in

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August 2012 in which Mike Hughes, a well-known and highly acclaimed education author

and trainer, suggested that staff carry out “switch plenaries” in which two teachers swap

classes for the final part of the lesson and carry out an AFL activity. I have previously

delivered CPD sessions to other staff in the College entitled Demonstrating Pupil Progress:

Ideas for Assessment For Learning (AFL). However, on reflection, I feel that encouraging

staff to participate in a switch plenary, may have greater impact especially if ran alongside

such training. Teachers would have to consider extremely carefully about how they would

assess what every student in an unknown class had learnt and what level of progress they

had made. Also, knowing that another member of staff would carry out a plenary on their

own class would in turn mean that they would have to ensure their own lesson had very

clear learning objectives and was very well delivered.

The Purpose

My aim is to find out if switch plenaries do in fact improve teacher’s ability to assess and

demonstrate pupil progression in Science lessons.

Hypothesis

I feel that the delivery of AFL training as part of this action research and staff participation in

switch plenaries could:

Improve individual teachers ability to assess and demonstrate pupil progress in

lessons

Highlight the importance of AFL and assessing progress in every lesson

Give staff a toolkit of AFL strategies to use in their lessons

Improve teacher’s knowledge of students ability and learning

Lead to improved attainment and achievement by students

Increased success during performance management observations

Literature and Theory

“Assessment plays an essential part in education generally and in learning and teaching

particularly. Teachers and schools are expected to assess students learning for a range of

purposes and for a range of audiences” (Smith 2007, p.8). Assessment for learning is

15

primarily carried out to help pupils learn. It focuses mainly on improvement and is used to

support progress. According to Smith (2007, p.11) it:

Helps learners to know how well they have learned and provides feedback on how

they can do better

Encourages learners to support and help each other while they are learning

Builds self-motivation, self-confidence and self-reliance

Black et al (2003, p.2) goes on to state that “an assessment activity can help learning if it

provides information to be used as feedback by teachers, and by their students in assessing

themselves and each other, to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are

engaged. Such assessment becomes formative assessment when the evidence is used to

adapt the teaching work to meet the learning needs”.

In the literature review I shall further discuss the importance and implications of formative

assessment, how to put ideas into practice e.g. reviewing strategies such as questioning,

feedback by marking, peer and self assessment, formative use of summative tests.

There is a breadth of literature and online resources available that give specific ideas for AFL

activities. I shall research and include a selection of these ideas in a short presentation to

support and inspire the teachers willing to carry out a switch plenary as part of this project.

Research Methodology

I have chosen action research as its aim is “to arrive at recommendations for good practice

that will tackle a problem or enhance the performance of the organisation and individuals

through changes to the rules and procedures within which they operate”. (Denscombe 2003,

p.27)

Research Methods

Documentary evidence can be analysed from the previous academic year (2012-

2013) to derive baseline data and compared to evidence gathered following the use

of switch plenaries in lessons:

o Baseline data to be derived from comments and gradings from

departmental lesson observations and learning walks.

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o Analysis of the School Improvement Plan

o Latest OFSTED report

Questionnaires

o Completed by each member of teaching staff that trialled the switch

plenaries

o To include a combination of scaling and open-ended questions to review

the impact of this strategy

Interview

o Informal conversation with teachers discussing impact and their own

opinion of the effectiveness of switch plenaries.

Observation

o Participant: I will carry out switch plenaries myself and evaluate its impact

on my own teaching and ability to plan for and carry out appropriate AFL

o Non-participant: Observation of other teachers carrying out a switch

plenary

Learning Journal

o To act as an aide memoir to the write-up procedure and to develop a

deeper and more reflective and critical understanding of my own

observations and interviews.

Ethical Implications

Due to the sensitive and confidential nature of lesson observation evaluation

reports, I will seek verbal consent from members of staff involved in this study to

allow me to read their lesson observation reports.

Whilst lesson observation reports and questionnaires will not be anonymous to me, I

will not identify any individual by name. In cases where individuals may be

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identifiable by role, I can offer these staff the opportunity to proof read the final

draft of the report.

Bell (2005, p.9) states that in action research it is important that “everyone involved

must know why the investigation is to take place, who will see the final report, and

who will have responsibility for implementing any recommended changes”.

Bias is an issue as observations and interpretation of any document or discussion is

subjective, and personal opinions can easily distract from a balanced argument.

Cost benefit ratio: The costs of my time, and the participation time of teaching staff

should hopefully be outweighed by the potential benefits of this action research.

Providing plenary tasks are well planned, this activity should have minimal impact on

students learning. I will provide ideas for effective plenaries / AFL for staff in

advance to ensure that staff are supported and well prepared. As the use of switch

plenaries are currently being promoted within the college, it will be worthwhile

knowing if it is actually an effective strategy. The benefits to myself and other

teachers would hopefully be that we are better equipped to assess progress in

lessons and as a result improve the progress of our students. This would result in

not only in greater attainment and achievement in the classroom but improved

performance management observations of teachers, which would in turn impact on

the overall effectiveness of the College as a whole.

Resources and Timeline

Time Tasks Resources

Jul- Aug Literature Review

Prepare AFL training session

to support staff

Library

Internet

Online Library access

ICT

Sept- Oct Recruit Participants

Deliver Training

Gather data from first set of

PM lesson observations

Teaching Staff

ICT

Time and classroom in

school to provide training

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Lesson Observation Reports

Nov – Dec Participating teachers to

carry out switch plenaries

Informal observation of

teaching staff

Interviews

Questionnaires

Teaching staff and pupils

Time in school to interview

Quiet/private room to

interview

Jan – Feb Evaluation of

questionnaires, interviews

and informal observations

ICT

Mar – Apr Gather data from second set

of PM lesson observations

Write up

Lesson Observation Reports

May – Jun Complete writing

Proof-reading

Binding

Submission

Printer

Binder (Reprographics)

The Report and the Audience

The report shall be formally written up and submitted as part of the MA Education

requirements. If suitable, research findings and ideas can be further delivered as

part of internal CPD training where appropriate.

Primarily this research will benefit and inform my own teaching practice.

Teachers within and outside my own department and/or college that are keen to

improve their own practice of improving and demonstrating progression within their

lessons.

The results of this piece of action research may be useful as further evidence or as a

case study for Mike Hughes.

Senior Leadership Team: Judgments on the effectiveness of the use of “switch

plenaries” could influence the provision of training or encouragement of this

strategy as part of staff continuing professional development.

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The Reference List and Bibliography

Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project, A Guide for First Time Researchers in Education,

Health and Social Science, 4th Edition. Open University Press

Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., William, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning,

Putting it into Practice, Open University Press

Denscombe, M. (2003), The Good Research Guide, 2nd Edition. Maidenhead: Open University

Press

OFSTED (2001) The National Literacy Strategy: The Third Year, An evaluation by HMI

OFSTED (2006) School Inspection Report, Reporting inspector Paul Brooker, HMI

OFSTED (2013) Science Survey Visits: Generic grade descriptors and supplementary subject-

specific guidance for inspectors on making judgements during visits to schools

Smith, I. (2007) Assessment and Learning Pocket Book, Teachers Pocket Books

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Part 3: A critical evaluation of the design process of writing a major project proposal

Introduction

Project design is about turning research questions into projects. Having established a

specific research focus it is now important to consider the choice of research strategy e.g.

the methodology and the research tactics e.g. the methods of investigation that I may wish

to employ. It is important to consider the strengths, weaknesses and ethical considerations

of each approach but as Robson (1998, p.38) states “the general principle is that the

research strategy or strategies, and the methods or technique employed must be

appropriate for the questions you want to answer”. It must also be in the capabilities and

timeframe of the researcher.

Credible research must also be reliable and valid. “Reliability is the extent to which a test or

procedure produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. Validity... tells

us whether an item or instrument measures or describes what it is supposed to measure or

describe” (Bell, 2005, p.117). Sapsford and Jupp (1996) go on to explain that validity is “the

design of research to provide credible conclusion; whether the evidence which the research

offers can bear the weight of the interpretation that is put on it”.

Methodology

Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Methodology refers to the style of enquiry. The two main approaches are qualitative and

quantitative research. Although there will be an element of quantitative data in my

research in the analysis of lesson observation gradings, the majority of the data analysed

will be qualitative.

“Quantitative researchers collect facts and study the relationship of one set of facts to

another. They use techniques that are likely to produce quantified and if possible,

generalizable conclusions. Researchers adopting a qualitative perspective are more

concerned to understand individual perceptions of the world. They doubt whether social

“facts” exist and question whether a “scientific” approach can be used when dealing with

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human beings. Yet there are occasions when qualitative researchers draw on quantitative

techniques and vice versa” (Bell 2005, p.7-8).

As quantitative research involves the gathering of facts, numerical data and statistical

analysis, quantitative research is usually more structured with testable prediction and

hypothesis. Data can be collected by use of surveys, questionnaires, attitude scales, timed

or incident observations, non-participant observations and dead data searches. Results can

be easily illustrated in graphs and charts. As such sample sizes can be large, random and

data is relatively straight forward to collect. With statistical analysis, conclusions can be

easily drawn. However, those experienced with using statistics will be aware of how easy it

is to use statistics to best suit the conclusion you are aiming for. It is therefore essential that

any statistical analysis I choose is robust. In quantitative research there is less risk of the

researcher becoming emotionally biased in their conclusions as the researcher is distanced

from the participant. As quantitative research takes little account of feelings or perceptions

of the participants, there is a danger that the research could become impersonal and

“blanket assumptions” can easily be made based on the data collected.

Qualitative research is focussed on gathering the perceptions of the participants, usually by

formal or informal interviews, participant observations, open questionnaires, journals or

videos. The methods employed tend to be face-to-face and hence more personal. In this

sense it can be difficult for the researcher to remain objective. The advantage of qualitative

research is that it usually leads to a better understanding of the human condition and a

greater “sense” of the situation. The findings are usually more holistic and comprehensive

than the narrow focus of quantitative research. The research can be difficult to construct, is

often time-consuming and requires deep thought to interpret and evaluate. Due to the

methods of data collection sample sizes are smaller, usually non-random, and often

carefully selected.

Phenomenology and Positivism

According to Easterby-Smith et al (1991, p.22) “the fundamental debate embraces two

philosophies which have opposite assumptions at the heart, positivistic and

phenomological.” These two paradigms fall into the two styles of research described above.

The positivisitic view takes a “scientific” stance and utilises quantitative data, statistical

22

analysis and direct facts to make an external and more objective view of the world whereas

the phenomenology takes “naturalistic” approach and does not believe the world and its

reality is so objective and exterior but believes in the meaning that people give to the world.

Phenomenology concerns itself mainly with the collection of qualitative data through

observation and interview and a more subjective view of the world is gained based upon

perception, reflection, intuition, opinions, and meaning. The phenomological approach that

I will be taking, therefore requires a greater level of thought and time in analysis of results

and as such will usually focus on much smaller sample sizes, hence I will focus solely on

teaching with the Science department of the College.

Action Research

Bell (2005, p.8) states that [action research...] is applied research carried out by practitioners

who have themselves identified a need for change or improvement, sometimes with support

from outside the institution; other times not.

I have chosen to carry out this project as action research as if it is designed effectively it can

not only improve my own understanding of practice but make my own practice more

effective. I can effectively use my own knowledge and influence to improve the situation.

A further advantage of action research is that participants can continue to review, evaluate

and improve practice. Denscombe (1998, p.58) describes this cycle of research as involving

“a feedback loop in which initial findings generate possibilities for change which are then

implemented and evaluated as a prelude to further investigation”.

Noffke and Zeichner (1987) make several claims for action research with teachers, that it:

Brings about changes in their definitions of their professional skills and roles;

Increases their feelings of self worth and confidence;

Increases their awareness of classroom issues

Improves their disposition towards reflection

Changes their values and beliefs;

Improves the congruence between practical theories and practices;

Broadens their views on teaching, schooling and society.

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The Experimental Style

Bell (2005, p.15) summarises that the principle of experimental style is “that two identical

groups are selected, one of which (the experimental group) is given special treatment and

the other (the control group) is not, then any differences between the two groups at the end

of the experimental period may be attributed to the difference in treatment.” In theory, my

experimental group could be teachers that have received AFL training and carried out switch

plenaries and the impact of this could be compared with a control group of teachers that

have not participated in switch plenaries. Whilst in many instances it is relatively

straightforward to establish a causal relationship and thus draw conclusions, it is difficult to

test changes in behaviour or indeed teaching style and skills. As Wilson (1979) points out

“social causes do not work singly. Any examination of low student attainment or high IQ is

the product of multiple causes.” As such Bell (2005, p.15) concludes that “large groups are

needed if the many variations and ambiguities involved in human behaviour are to be

controlled. Such large-scale experiments are expensive to set up and take more time.” As

such I will be rejecting this style of research.

Ethnography and ethnographic style of research

Ethnographic researchers attempt to develop an understanding of how culture works. Bell

(2000, p.12-13) explains “that the ethnographic style... was developed originally by

anthropologists who wished to study a society or some aspects of a society, culture or group

in depth. They developed an approach which depended heavily on observation and, in some

cases, complete or partial integration into the society being studied.”

Lutz (1986, p.108) points out the various methods that are involved: “Participant

observation, interview, mapping and charting, interaction analysis, study of historical

records and current public documents, the use of demographic data, etc. But ethnography

centers on the participant observation of a society or culture through a complete cycle of

events that regularly occur as that society interacts with its environment.”

Participant observation enables researchers as far as possible, to share the same

experiences as the subjects, to understand better why they act in the way they do and “to

see things as those involved see things” (Denscombe 1998, p.69). It is worth noting that this

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style of research is time-consuming and the researcher has to be accepted by the individuals

or groups being studied, and this can mean doing the same job, or living in the same

environment and circumstances as the subjects for lengthy periods. It may be a problem

that the presence of an observer may influence the behaviour of the group. Another issue is

of representativeness. There is no guarantee that the group that the researcher is studying

is typical of other groups with the same title. In the sense that I am a teacher and will be

carrying out and reflecting on the use of switch plenaries in my own teaching practice as

well as observing other teachers I will be encompassing elements of this style of research.

Methods

The following is a discussion of the key ideas, advantages and disadvantages of the methods

that I have chosen to employ in my research proposal.

Interviewing

Interviews allow the researcher to discuss and question issues with others. They usually aim

to gather qualitative data that cannot be achieved using questionnaires or surveys. As Bell

(2005, p.157) states “one major advantage of the interview is its adaptability. A skilful

interviewer can follow up ideas, probe responses and investigate. The way in which a

response is made (the tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation etc.) can provide

information that a written response would conceal.”

Formal Interview

A researcher will use a formal interview to gain insight to a situation or issue in order to take

their research forward. When people help researchers by giving up their time to be

interviewed, it is inherent that the researcher be polite and appreciative of the co-operation

of the interviewee. Confirming a mutually convenient appointment time with the

interviewee is as important as organising a quiet room in which the interview can be

conducted without interruptions. Questions should be planned in advance and it is

courteous to inform the interviewee what you intend to ask.

Interviews are time-consuming and as such it is usually only possible to interview a relatively

small number of people. The wording of questions can pose a difficulty. Care has to be

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taken not to ask leading, presumptive or offensive questions. Bell (2005, p.158) adds that

you also need to “make sure your form of questioning is clear, does not antagonize the

respondent and allows you to record responses in a way that you can understand when the

interview is over.” Bell (2005, p.164) suggests that “in one-to-one interviews, tape recording

can be useful to check the wording of any statement you might wish to quote, to allow you

to keep eye contact with your interviewee, to help you look interested – and to make sure

that what you write is accurate.” However, it is worth bearing in mind that knowledge that

a tape is running can sometimes inhibit honest responses and if tape-transcription is

required this is of course extremely time-consuming. Permission must be sought prior to

taped interviews and taped information must remain confidential. Further issues with

interviews are bias. As Selltiz et al (1962, p.583) points out, “interviewers are human beings

and not machines, and their manner may have an effect on respondents”.

Structured Interviews

[Structured or semi-structured interviews enable...] you to tick or circle responses on your

previously prepared schedule, you should be able to leave the interview with a set of

responses that can be fairly easily recorded, summarised and analysed (Bell 2005, p.158).

She adds that “questions and coding can be developed during the course of pilot interviews.”

Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews focus on a particular issue and allow respondents the freedom to

talk about the topic and give their views in their own time and words. Unstructured

interviews can “produce a wealth of valuable data but such interviews require a great deal

of expertise to control and a great deal of time to analyse” (Bell 2005, p.161). Informal

interviews in this manner can also encompass casual conversation in a corridor to focussed

discussion with the researcher, all of which can yield interesting data.

Group Interviews or Focus groups

Group interviews are a useful way of gathering qualitative data. They can quickly yield a

wide range of responses and opinions and can be less intimidating that the one-to-one

interview. They are however less useful for discussing more sensitive or personal issues.

Also, as Bell (2005, p.163) points out “a couple of strong personalities can also influence and

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in some cases take over a group and make it difficult for the less assertive members to

speak.” Denscombe (1998, p.115) further adds that “if group members regard their opinions

as contrary to prevailing opinion in the group, they might be inclined to keep quiet, or

moderate their views somewhat... The privacy of the one-to-one interview does not pose this

difficulty.”

Observation (Participant and Non-Participant)

Observation is a way of gathering qualitative data and involves the researcher watching,

recording and analysing events of interest. As Bell (2005, p.184) states “observation can be

useful in discovering whether people do what they say they do, or behave in the way they

claim to behave.” However, observation is a skilled process that is open to bias and

misinterpretation as it depends on the way people perceive what is being said or done.

Observation can be structured or unstructured, participant or non-participant.

Unstructured observations may be useful when the observer has a focus for the observation

but is unsure of the detail. Bell (2005, p.186) adds that “unstructured observation can be

useful to generate hypotheses, but it is not easy to manage”. Structured observations are of

use when you have already decided the focus and observing some aspect of behaviour has

become apparent.

Non-participant observation allows the researcher to observe from a distance without

influencing the subject(s) of the observation. However, many will argue that the mere

presence of an observer will influence the way in which people behave.

“[Participant observation...] involves the researcher participating in the daily life of any

individual, group or community and listening, observing, questioning and understanding (or

trying to understand) the life of the individuals concerned” (Bell 2005, p.186) It is

understandably difficult to avoid bias in this scenario and appreciate everything that is going

on as the participant observer is focussed on their own involvement. Bell (2005, p.187) adds

that “it is difficult to stand back and adopt the role of objective observer when all the

members of the group or organisation are known to you. Participant observation can yield

valuable data and researchers are able to observe changes over time rather than just take

snap-shot observations.

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For successful observation, schedules in the form of checklists, diaries, charts, time or

critical incident logs need to be made, and a suitable method devised for recording

behaviour and/or content. As an overload of information is inevitable during observation it

is important to have a clear focus.

Journal Writing

Journals are usually written in less formal language and data is derived from them in the

form of recorded events, experiences and perceptions written over a period of time. It can

help the researcher to improve their ability to write and can give the researcher a clear

focus and help to clarify and organise their thoughts and act as an aide memoir. Journal

writing can improve critical thinking and promote a questioning attitude. The use of a

journal for this piece of action research will be beneficial particularly when logging thoughts

and reflections of observations and interviews.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be difficult to design. As Bell (2005, p.136) points out “it requires

discipline in the selection of questions, in question writing, in the design, piloting, distribution

and the return of questionnaires.” Questions must be well structured so that they do not

cause problems at the analysis stage. Problems arise in questionnaires when wording is

ambiguous, imprecise or leading, if the questions require extensive knowledge or memory

from the recipient, or when questions are hypothetical or based upon assumptions or

sensitive issues. Bell (2005, p.140) explains that “if respondents are confused, irritated or

even offended, they may leave the item blank or even abandon the questionnaire”.

Questionnaires should be in the correct format and tidy. Piloting a questionnaire is essential

for testing its usability and if you can appropriately analyse results. There are issues with

distribution; giving questionnaires to respondents personally can allow you to explain the

purpose of the study, encourage co-operation and sometimes allows for questionnaires to

be completed on the spot, it obviously is a time-consuming approach. Posting

questionnaires can reach potentially more respondents but as Bell (2005, p.148) states

“postal surveys are expensive and response rates are low”.

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There are further issues in how representative your sample is compared to the population

as a whole, also, in how valid or truthful responses are. Non-response is a problem

“because of the likelyhood-repeatedly confirmed in practice – that people who do not return

questionnaires differ from those who do” (Moser and Kalton 1971, p.267-8).

Documentary Evidence

Document searches can provide insight and detailed knowledge of a situation. Searches of

this nature may cover local or national sources of evidence. They can involve the analysis of

photographs, films, videos, slides, printed or manuscript sources. Primary sources are those

which came into existence in the period under research whereas secondary sources are

interpretations of events of that period based on primary sources. Deliberate sources

include any document that was intended for publication. Inadvertent sources are used by

the researcher for some purpose other than that which they were originally intended.

“Witting evidence is the information which the original author of the document wanted to

impart. Unwitting evidence is everything else that can be learned from the document”

(Marwick 2001, p.172-9).

Analysis of documents can be subject to external and internal criticism. External criticism

aims to discover whether a document is both genuine and authentic, whereas internal

criticism involves a rigorous analysis of the content. Bell (2005, p.133) points out that [for

this to be done well] “qualities of scepticism as well as empathy need to be developed.”

A difficulty in reviewing documentary evidence is the volume of material which could be

researched in the time allocated. Sampling techniques may therefore be necessary.

Problems may arise as sources can be interpreted in different ways. Determining fact and

bias is a further issue. However as Bell (2005, p.132) points out “in some cases the most

useful evidence can be derived from biased sources which accurately reveal the true views of

an individual or group.” She also explains that “some of the documents generated by a

school for inspection may have the aim of giving the best possible impression to the

inspectors; without the imminent inspection, the school might not be so prolific in its

production of policy statements, and schemes of work or so up-to-date in its staff handbook”

(Bell 2005, p.127).

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Literature Search

The review of the literature is essential for the researcher in becoming an expert in the field.

Literature reviews are needed for researchers to confidently deal with issues relating to

their work, identifying a topic of interest and grasping a firm knowledge of previous

research. I shall be presenting a literature review in its own sub-section.

Ethics

Blaxter et al. (2001, p.158) summarize the principles of research ethics as follows:

“Research ethics is about being clear about the nature of the agreement you have entered

into with your research subjects or contacts. This is why contracts can be a useful device.

Ethical research involves getting the informed consent of those you are going to interview,

question, observe, or take materials from. It involves reaching agreements about the uses of

this data, and how its analysis will be reported and disseminated. And it is about keeping to

such agreements when they have been reached.”

In addition to ensuring that participants know exactly what will be involved in the research,

the informed consent procedure “reduces the legal liability of the researcher” (Bowling

(2002, p.157 – In Bell 2005, p.45).

Permission

Bell (2005, p.16) points out that “permission to conduct research must be obtained from the

heads of institutions or units concerned and from the participants themselves. All must be

fully informed about what is involved. Proposals may have to considered by ethics

committees and / or research committees in order to ensure that subjects of the research will

not be harmed by it. Particularly if children are involved, permission to participate must be

sought from parents.”

Even if this is unnecessary, at the very least the researcher has an obligation to conduct him

or herself in such a manner that any aspect or subject of the research is not compromised.

Bell (2005, p.46) explains that “ethics committees [can also] play an important part in

ensuring that no badly designed or harmful research is permitted. [However...] one

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complaint which is frequently levelled at ethics and research committees is the time taken to

respond to submissions.”

Confidentiality and Anonymity

One of the biggest issues in conducting research is with confidentiality and anonymity.

Sapsford and Abbott (1996, p.319) make it clear that in their view that “confidentiality is a

promise that you will not be identified or presented in identifiable form, while anonymity is a

promise that even the researcher will not be able to tell which responses came from which

respondent.” Problems arise as you are unable to send follow-up letters in response to

anonymous questionnaires. Other difficulties over confidentiality occur if you identify

people by role. Obviously there is usually only one Head of Science or Principal in a College!

Intellectual Property

As with all high quality research there may be issues with intellectual ownership/property.

Bell (2005, p.55-56) explains that “in some cases, students may be required to assign

ownership of their intellectual property to institutions, to ensure that any potential patent or

marketable findings are not lost, and so it is particularly important that everyone

understands what this means... Doing well in research assessment exercises brings not only

recognition and prestige but also money – and all three count.”

Bias

Observations are subjective and therefore are easily open to bias or misinterpretation. As

Bell (2005, p.187) continues to explain, “it is difficult to stand back and adopt the role of

objective observer when all the members of the group or organization are known to you”.

Over familiarisation of a group that you are observing could also lead you to miss vital

details. As such, it is good practice to carry out joint observations where possible.

Interviews and questionnaires can be easily biased by the use of leading questions or

emotive language. Indeed the interviewer’s tone of voice and body language may also invite

certain responses from the participant. As Selltiz et al. (1962, p.583) point out “interviewers

are human beings and not machines, and their manner may have an effect on respondents”.

Indeed, the interviewee may also be biased in that they may be either too eager to please

the interviewer or conversely keen to antagonise him/her.

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There is potential for bias in sampling and data analysis as well as a danger of

‘overweighting’ facts because of personal beliefs.

Participant Issues

Research that involves collecting data from people can cause various issues. Participants

may sometimes be involved without their knowledge, e.g. in non-participant observation.

Participants may be mislead as to the true nature of the research or not truly understand it.

This could be of particular importance in research carried out in schools as students may be

too young or have learning needs that hinder their understanding. Participants may find

Interviews and observations stressful, particularly if sensitive issues are discussed.

The Cost/Benefit Ratio

The cost/benefits ratio is a fundamental concept expressing the primary ethical dilemma in

social research. The ‘costs’ of carrying out research such as the time and effort required to

complete the research, or the potential affronts to dignity, embarrassment or stress from

participants must be balanced against the ‘benefits’ of the research. Benefits may be the

knowledge gained, the improvements which might be made as a result, and may even

include the satisfaction gained from participants contributing to the research.

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References

Bell, J. (2000) Doing Your Research Project, Open University Press

Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project, A Guide for First-time Researchers in Education, Health and Social Science, 4th Edition, Open University Press

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., and Tight, M. (2001) How to Research, 2nd edition, Buckingham: Open University Press

Bowling, A. (2002) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and Health Services, 2nd

Edition, Maidenhead: Open University Press

Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide for Small-scale Social Research Projects, Buckingham: Open University Press

Easterby-Smith, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide, Open University Press

Lutz, F.W. (1986) Ethnography: The Holistic Approach to Understanding Schooling, Chapter 3.1 in Hammersley, M. Controversies in Classroom Research, Milten Keynes: Open University Press

Marwick, A. (2001) The New Nature of History, 5th Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave

Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G. (1971) Survey Methods in Social Investigation, 2nd Edition, London: Heinemanm

Noffke, S.E., and Zeichner, K. M. (1987) Action Research and Teacher Thinking, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington D.C.

Sapsford, R.J. and Abbott, (1996) Ethics, Politics and Research, in Sapsford, R., and Jupp, V. (1996) Data Collection and Analysis, London: Sage

Sapsford, R., and Jupp, V. (1996) Data Collection and Analysis, London: Sage

Sellitz, D., Jahoda, M., Deutsch, M. And Cook, S.W. (1962) Research Methods in Social Relations, 2nd Edition, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Wilson, S. (1979) Explorations of the Usefulness of Case Study Evaluations, Evaluation Quarterly, 3. p. 446-459

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