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CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)May 2018

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POPULATION DYNAMICS REASONS FOR POPULATION EXPLOSION

Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, doctors, new drugsand scientific inventions

Improved sanitation and water supply Improvements in food production (quality & quantity) Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc. Decrease in child mortality

MAIN COMPONENTS INFLUENCING POPULATION GROWTH

Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one country or region to another

Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for every 1000 people

Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 people Fertility rate: The average number of children a female is expected to

have in their lifetime.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION GROWTH AND

RESOURCE

S Population growth is related to the amount of resources available for

example water, wood and minerals

HIGH DEATH RATES IN LEDCS

Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics Poor sanitation/poor hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation HIV/AIDS Natural disasters/drought/flood Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g. smoking/diet Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s homes

LOW BIRTH RATES IN MEDCS

Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions Educated in contraception/family planning Able to afford contraception/family planning/abortions Traditionally small families Expense of bringing up children Many women have careers/women are educated; Availability of pensions Low infant mortality rate Lack of religious beliefs/don’t object to contraception

PROBLEMS

OF

Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment can supportwithout there being negative effects to the population.

Optimum Population: amount of people that a region/country can ecologically support, usually less than carrying capacity.

Under-population: when country has declined too much that it can’tsupport its economic system.

Overpopulation: too much population of an area: overcrowding, depletion of resources.

Population Density: number of people living in a given area (km2)

Overpopulation Unemployment Shortage of hospitals/schools Shortage of housing Congestion Inflation (excess demand) Shortage of water & electricity Nosie, air & water pollution

Underpopulation

Shortage of workers Less paying taxes Schools, hospitals & transport

routes close; few customers Less innovation/development Hard to defend Have to attract migrants

Population Distribution: how a population is spread out around a country or an area

DEMOGRAPHIC MODEL

OriginsHIV/AIDS

o HIV-1 – arose in Central Africao HIV-2 – arose in West Africa

HIV mostly occurs in women. When women give birth, they infect thechild as well resulting in low death rate for infants.

Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan generation. (Year2000 – 600 000 orphans). Due to the countries being poor, there is alack in state welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of education.

POPULATION PYRAMID GENERAL FORMATS

Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age and sex structure of the country.

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× 100FACTORS INFLUENCING DENSITY OF POPULATION

Stage 1: high birth rate; high death rates; short life expectancy; less dependency (since there are few old people and children have to work anyway)

Stage 2: high birth rate; fall in death rate; slightly longer life expectancy; more dependency as there are more elderly

Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining death rate; longer life expectancy; more dependency

Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest dependency ratio;longest life expectancy

Causes of Sparse Population

Mountainous area Very hot or very cold area A heavily forested area Areas that flood a lot No jobs Poor supply of electricity, gas

and water Poor communications Shortage of natural resources No schools or hospitals Regular natural disasters

Causes of Dense Population Coastal areas Flat relief; easy to build on Close to a supply of water Areas with natural resources Fertile agricultural land Developed transport links Plenty of available jobs Available electricity and water Good communications Good quality schools/hospitals


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MIGRATION Migration: movement of people from one area to another

SITE AND SITUATION

Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement isCauses of Voluntary Migration

Find a job, or a better paid job Pioneers developing new areas Trade & economic expansion Territorial expansion Better climate Social amenities Be with friends/family

Causes of Forced Migration

Avoid religious/political persecution

Avoid war Slavery/prisoner of war Racial discrimination Famine Natural disasters Overpopulation

located – the actual piece of land Situation: describes settlement in relation to other settlements

and physical features around it – this determines whether or notthe situation will grow into a large city or remain a small town or village

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Wet point sites: these have a good water supply Dry point sites: these are away from the risk of flooding Building materials: availability of things like stone, wood, clay etc.

Internal migration is within a country e.g. rural/urban, regional External or international is between countries e.g. Negro slaves to

America (forced) or Mexicans into the US (voluntary) Emigrant: A person who leaves a country to migrate to another. Immigrant: A migrant arriving in a new country.

Advantages DisadvantagesLosing Country

Defensive sites: within a river meander or on a hill with steep sided and commanding views

Fuel supply: for heating and cooking Food supplies: land suitable for rearing animals and growing crops Nodal points: where routes converge Bridging point: may originally have been at a ford in the river or

where river was shallow enough to build a bridge Reduces pressure on

resources Decline in birth rate Migrants bring back new skills Money is sent back

Loss of people in working age

Loss of educated/skilled people

Division of families Left with elderly population

Aspect: settlements often found on sunny side of a deep valley

Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain.

FUNCTIONS

Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas.

Gaining Country The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally

Overcomes labor shortage Dirty unskilled jobs done Will work long hours for low

salary Cultural advantages and links

Pressure on jobs

Low quality & overcrowded housing

Racism Language problems Less healthy Less religious amenities for

immigrants

agriculture and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas haveless people, poorer transport, poorer communication, lesstechnology and the land is better used for other purposes.

Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions ranging from shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport functions, to administrative functions and residential functions.The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally has.

Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area into theREFUGEES AND

IDPS Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their home and

their country. This might be because of a natural disaster, war, religious or political persecution.

Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they believe in e.g. their religion or political belief.

Internally displaced person (IDP): When someone has been forced to leave their home but not their country.

Asylum Seekers: Someone who is trying to get refuge (residency) in a foreign country because their life is in danger in their home country, usually because of their political or religious beliefs.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF RURAL

SETTLEMENTS

rural-urban fringe HIERARCHY

An isolated,

building or a group of two or

three buildings, separated from the next by 2 or 3 km.


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Buildings are strung along a line of communication, for example a main road, a river valley, or canal

Buildings are grouped together, initially for defense, or a common resource.

Determining order of importance:o The population sizeo The range and number of serviceso The sphere of influence

Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to

access a service. Services:

Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket. Services have a threshold population, which helps explain whybigger settlements have more services.

Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g. a school, a post office, etc.

URBAN PATTERNS IN LEDCS

Model of a typical LEDC city:

Both MEDC and LEDC cities have a CBD - often oldest part of city. In LEDCs, poorest housing is found on the edge of the city, in

contrast to MEDC cities Areas of poor quality housing found on the edge of cities in LEDCs

are called squatter settlements or shanty towns Favelas: illegal settlements created due to massive influx of people

LAND USE MODELSBurgess (concentric)

Based on idea that land values are highest in the center

Because competition is high in central parts of the settlement

Limitationso Model quite old &

developed before mass car ownership.

o New working/housing trendo Every city is different

Hoyt (sector)

Based on circles in Burgess model, but adds sectors of similar land uses in parts of the city.

Some zones, e.g. industry zone, radiate out from the CBD, probably following the line of a main road or a railway.

PROBLEMS OF URBAN GROWTHFor People

Overcrowded Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Pressure on schools/hospitals Increased crime rates Difficulties of waste/litter Traffic congestion Noise pollution Lack of sanitation Poor quality of life Food shortage

For Environment Loss of vegetation Loss of habitats Impacts on food chains Pollution of rivers Death of fish/other species Pollution of ground water Air/atmospheric pollution Rivers dry up

URBAN RENEWAL

Reasons for it Older properties fallen into

disrepair/high cost of repair; Use land more intensively; demand for apartments

Why people want keep old houses and improve them

Older houses retain culture Old houses often large/well

constructed; People can’t afford to move;


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Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required for a service to be offered and remain open.

High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a car

Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk.

CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD) The CBD:o Centre point of the city and has highest land priceso Most accessible point in the cityo High-rise buildings and skyscrapers

Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services and other professional services

Land uses:o Leisure and recreation - may include open lando Residential - High/multi-storey buildings.o Transport - road and rail networks, stations and airportso Business and commerce - offices, shops and bankso Industry - factories, warehouses and small production centers

The CBD is located in the center because it is:o A central location for road/railways to convergeo The most accessible location for workerso Accessible to most people for shops and businesses

Problems that CDB face: congestion, pollution and lack of space

RESIDENTIAL AREAS

Old inner city area (a.k.a. twilight zone):o Typically found next to CBDo Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern.o Originally built to house factory workers who worked in inner

city factories (now closed down). Suburbia:o Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of

well- planned and spacious houses.o Usually larger than inner city terraces and most have a garden.o Typically, detached or semidetachedo Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs (dead-end) and wide

avenues.o Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city,

although demand can make some areas expensive. Outer city estate:o Located on the fringes of cities with varied types of housingo people relocated here when inner city was being redeveloped

The rural urban fringe:o This is found at the edge of a town or cityo Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses, allotments,

business parks and airports.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

Factories were built:o As close as possible to the CBD but with enough spaceo Next to canals and railways to transport materials,o Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste disposalo Next to land where lots of workers could live.

FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES IN A VILLAGE

Villages - low order services, services in towns will be higher order Mainly/entirely convenience goods, whilst towns will offer

specialist/comparison Examples of village services (e.g. post office, church/mosque)


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Services which require small threshold population; Services which have small sphere of influence

Constructive: occur when two platesmove away from each other.

Example: NorthAmerican andEurasian Plate

Conservative: occur when two platesslide past each other.

Example: NorthAmerican Plate and the Pacific Plate

Destructive: occur when oceanic plate issubducted by a continental plate.

Example: Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate

DISTRIBUTIOPlate boundary Volcanoes? Earthquakes? Fold mountains?

Constructive Gentle Gentle NoDestructive Violent Violent YesCollision None Violent YesConservative None Violent No Earthquake:

o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Oceano Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Oceano Stretch across southern Europe and Asia

Volcanoes:o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Oceano Extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Oceano Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean and east Africa

FOLD MOUNTAINS

At a destructive plate margin, the oceanic plate is subducted whilst the continental plate is crumpled upwards to form a mountain range

At collision margins, both plates forced upwards in a series of folds Two types of fold mountainso Young: 10 to 15 million years of age e.g. Rockies and Himalayaso Old: Over 200 million years of age e.g. Uralas and Appalachians

Created by uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they move towards each other and collide

Movement of two plates forces sedimentary rocks upwards into a

VOLCANOE

S A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash escapes

onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere. Causes:o At constructive margin: plates move away from each other;

magma rises to fill the gap;o At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from friction and


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Building of houses with better amenities/or examples;

New road developments; New leisure/shopping centres;

Community spirit;

Cheaper option for authority; To restrict outward expansion

CONTROLLING URBAN GROWTH Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is protected from

development. Stops greenfield sites being built on and alternative like brownfield sites being used.

Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in wedges ensuring some green areas protected throughout city

Brownfield sited: increasing building on brownfield sites allows less pressure to be put on rural areas

Housing density: increasing housing density means less land will be destroyed

AdvantagesGREENFIELD SITES

Disadvantages Land never used – not polluted Often near rural-urban fringe

so good transport links Less congestion Room to expand

Conflicts with other land users

Many sites are now protected by the government

Public protests for building on greenfield site

Advantages Often cheap to buy Near the CBD

BROWNFIELD SITESDisadvantages

Site polluted – expensive to clean up

Closer to transport routes No room to expand May not be in desirable shape

or location

PLATE TECTONICS TECTONIC PLATES

Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly beingdestroyed and replaced

Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the mantle

PLATE BOUNDARIESDiagram Description

Collision: occur when two continentalplates move towards each other.

Example: Indo- Australian and the Eurasian Plate


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EARTHQUAKE A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust Caused when two plates ‘stick’; pressure builds up; one plate jerks

forward sending shock waves to the surface

Shock waves

Volcanic plug: lava shoots up, falls down into the vent and solidifies Explosive eruptions can produce mud flows called lahars Active Volcano: A volcano that has erupted recently. Dormant Volcano: A volcano that has not erupted in recent history

but may erupt again in the future. Extinct Volcano: A volcano that is unlikely to ever erupt again,

because no magma is being produced under it.

Features

Focus: point of earthquake Epicenter: point directly above

the focus, on the ground Seismic waves Shaking ground Subduction zone: occurs at

destructive margin, one plategoes under the other

Prediction Measure earth tremors,

pressure, and release of gas Use maps and facts to find

pattern in time/location Unusual animal behavior

Effects

Large number of deaths Fires breaking out Water pipes burst Water contamination,

diseases Corpses: human & animal Accessibility difficult Building damaged/destroyed Tsunami can follow Reconstruction costs

Preparation Build earthquake-proof

buildings and roads Train emergency services Set up warning system Create evacuation plan Emergency food supply Practice drills

Gentle slopes, slow flowing lava

Advantages

Steep slopes, violent eruption

Mix of cone and shield, eruption

varies in strength,made of layers of ashand lava (unstable)

Disadvantages

Earthquake-Proof Buildings

Computer-controlled weights on roof to reduce movement Fire-resistant building material No bricks or reinforced concrete block Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations and superstructure Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay Roads to provide quick access by ambulances and fire engines Open areas where people can assemble if evacuated Automatic shutters come down over the windows Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth movements

Tourist attraction: income andemployment

Creates fertile soil: good agricultural land to grow crops

Geothermal heating:o Natural

renewable resource

o Heating (hot water)o Geyser and mud baths

Prediction Tremors within volcano Ground temperatures rises,

detect by heat-seekingcameras

Volcano swells and bulges Volcano emits gas and steam Animal behavior changes

Destruction of land, property,

jobs, homes, transport Rebuilding costs Unemployment Fires breakout Diseases from poor sanitation Gas from eruption suffocates Pyroclastic flow

Preparation Set up warning system Create evacuation plan Train emergency services Organize post-eruption plan Emergency food supply

LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES WEATHERING

Weathering is disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING

Physical weathering: weathering where there is no change in the chemical composition of the rock, due to physical processes.

Freeze-thaw: occurs where there are cracked rocks and temperatures fluctuate around freezing point, repeated freezing and thawing causes cracks to widen.

Causes: Melting snows

LAHARS

Loss of lifeEffect:

Exfoliation: occurs in very warm climates where there are exposed, non-vegetated rocks. The outer layers heat up and cool down faster than the inner layers causing stresses in the rock; the

Heavy rainfall/water contentof magma

Mix with ash Flow down steep

slopes/gravity Triggered by earthquakes

Destroy buildings/homes

Destroy crops/livestock Disrupt communications Bring down power

lines/damage water pipes

Occur without warning/at great speed


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outer layer peels off.

Middle Lower

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

CHANGES DOWN THE RIVERLong Profile:

Cross Profile:Upper

Course Long Profile Cross ProfileUpper Steeply sloping

towards the lower sections of the river.

Steep sided v-shaped valley.Thin river channel, deep in places.

Middle Shallow slopestowards the mouth of the river.

V-shaped valley remains with awider valley floor and the river begins to meander across it. The river channel begins to widen and become deeper.

Lower Almost at sea level,very gently sloping towards its mouth.

Wide, shallow valley, with largeflood plains and meanders. The river channel is wide, deep and smooth sided.

Bed: the bottom of the river channel. Bank: The sides of the river channel. A river has two banks. Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact with river. Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that a river

flows. The flow of the river is often described as channel flow. Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of

the river channel, where there is least friction.


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BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING Biological weathering: roots widen weaknesses in the rock until

part of the rock detaches

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Chemical weathering: occurs in warm, moist climates Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in air reacts with rainwater and

forms carbonic acid/acid rain. This reacts with calcium carbonateor chalk forming calcium bicarbonate or calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble in water. this widens/ deepen cracks

Oxidation: If rock contains iron, it is oxidized in the presence of water forming iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) or rust. This gives the rock a reddish brown colour. The rock is weakened & eventually crumbles away.

WEATHERING IN HUMID TROPICAL AREAS

Tropical areas tend to experience more weathering because of: Large amounts of rainfall increasing chemical weathering Large amounts of vegetation increasing biological weathering They are nearer to the equator so there are high temperatures

and faster rates of chemical reaction Some areas (high areas and desert areas) have higher diurnal

temperature range.

RIVER TERMINOLOGY Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river. Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It

marks the boundary between two drainage basins. Source: the beginning or start of a river. Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join. Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger stream or

river. Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when entering

sea

RIVER PROCESSES

Drainage basins act as a system with:o Inputs: precipitationo Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, throughflow

& groundwater flowo Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture storage &

groundwater storageo Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration


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TRANSPORTATION

Traction: rolling stones along the bed

V-shaped valley:LANDFORMS

Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog motion Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow Solution: minerals dissolve in the water

EROSION

Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and break into smaller pieces (occurs at higher part of river)

Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges particles from its banks and bed

Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks and bed like sand-paper; occurs at low part of river (smaller particles)

Solution: acids in river dissolve rocks (occurs at any part of river)

DEPOSITION

When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins with the heaviest particles; happens when there is less water or where the current slows down.

Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting.

BRADSHAW MODEL

o Valley is narrow with a narrow, shallow river channel

o Valleys have steep sideso Channel has a

steep gradiento Water is mainly slow

flowing as most of the rivers energy is used to overcome the friction of the river bed & obstructions

o Load is mainly large, angular and rough

Interlocking spurs: In the upper valley a river is in the mountains. Water takes the easiest path downhill so twists & turns around the high land (spurs) forming interlocking spurs.

Waterfalls:o They occur because the river flows over hard rock

which erodes slowly.o Beneath is softer rock which is eroded faster to form a “step”.o The force of the water erodes the bottom of the waterfall to

form a plunge pool.o The hard rock gets undercut as the soft rock erodes so that

it eventually collapses.

Rapids: They form also where the river passes over hard rock, but either the band of rock is not very deep or there are a series of shallow rock bands.

Potholes: Can be found in the upper & middle valley where a river flows over solid rock.

Meanders:o Wide sweeping bends found

in the lower part of the river.o They are formed by a

combination of lateral erosion& deposition.

Ox-bow Lakes:o Form when the neck of the meander becomes very narrow.o During high flow or floods the river cuts through the neck &

straightens its course.o Deposition occurs on the bank of the rivero The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake.


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Deltas:o Deltas occur where a river that carries a large amount

of sediment meets a lake or the sea. Dams:FLOOD MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

o This meeting causes the river to lose energy and drop the sediment it is carrying.

o Deltas form where river mouths become choked withsediment, causing the main river channel to split into hundredsof smaller channels or distributaries.

Levées: when a river floods, the coarsest material is deposited first, on the edges of the river, forming a natural embankment called a levée.

o Often built along the course of a river in order to control theamount of discharge.

o Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir and released in a controlled way which controls flooding.

o Building dams is expensive, can affect farmers and cause erosion downstream

River engineering:o The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it

to carry more water.o A river channel may be straightened so that water can

travel faster along the course.o The channel course of the river can also be altered,

diverting floodwaters away from settlements.o Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of

flooding downstream, as the water is carried there faster. Afforestation:

o Trees planted near to the river meaning greater interception of rainwater and lower river discharge.

o This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality of the drainage basin.

Managed flooding: The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas

Planning:o Local authorities and national government introduce

policies to control urban development close to or on floodplain reducing chance of flooding and risk of damage to property.

o However, enforcing planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs

Flood plain:o Area of alluvial deposits found beside the river in its

lower course.o As meanders move slowly down the course of the river they

erode away the valley to create a wide valley floor, and they deposit layers of alluvial material on the slip off slopes building up into a large flood plain

FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

The greater the lag time, the less chance there is of a flood A rise in discharge on the graph is called the rising limb The falling limb shows a decrease in discharge.

TYPES OF WAVESCAUSES OF RIVER FLOODING

Steep-sided channel: a river channel surrounded by steep slopes causes fast surface run-off.

Lack of vegetation or woodland: surface run-off will be high astrees and plants won’t intercept precipitation.

Drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock: water cannot percolate through rock layer, and will runoff surface

Drainage basin in an urban area: these consist largely of impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow.

Deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation, and population pressures cause soil erosion causes sediment to go into rivers decreasing the cross-sectional area

Constructive

Low wave height & usually beach gradient is gentle.

Waves spill forward gently creating a strong swash.

Water drains away through beach material so backwash is weak.

These waves deposit material& build up beaches.

Destructive High wave height & the beach

tends to be steep. Wave plunges forward onto

beach so swash is weak, but rotation of water causes a strong backwash.

These waves tend to erode beaches.


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Constructive:

Destrictive:

COMPONENTS OF A WAVE

Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach. Backwash: when the water drains away back into the oncoming

wave. The size of waves depends upon three factors:o The strength of the wind.o The length of time the wind has been blowing.o The fetch or distance over which the wind can blow.

METHODS OF EROSIION

Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cliff Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in the cliffs

LONGSHORE DRIFT

When waves approach the coast at an angle the swash moves up the beach at an angle.

The backwash, however, drains straight back down the beach. This will gradually move sand/stones along the beach in a zig-zag

motion.

CAVES, ARCHES AND STACKS

A band of weaker rock extends through a headland. More erosion occurs producing caves on both sides of headland Continued erosion produces an arch through the headland. Eventually the roof is weakened & collapses forming a stack

BEACHES

In bays the waves diverge outwards. The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy environment

hence deposition to form beaches.

BAYS AND HEADLANDS

• Bays are formed due to softer rockgetting eroded easily.

• Headlands are usually formed since they are made of resistant rock and so is eroded more difficultly.

Spits:SPITS AND SALT MARSHES

CLIFF AND WAVE-CUT PLATFORM Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff so a wave-cut

notch is formed. The cliff is undercut & collapses. Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff producing a platform

of flat rock at the cliff foot extending out to sea.

o Spits form when the coastline changes direction. Longshore drift continues to carry material in the same direction.

o Sand & shingle is built up to form the spit.o End of spit curves due to wave refraction or secondary winds.

Salt marsh:o Mud is deposited by the tides. The beach builds up above

sea level forming mudflats.o Plants start to grow in mud & trap more sediment, forming

a salt marsh. Bars: A spit that connects two headlands or runs across the face

of a small cove (bay)


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Diagram showing optimal conditions for their growth:

SAND DUNES Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches. Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water

mark & carry it landward by saltation. Problems faced by mangrove swamps and their solutions: If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy & deposits

sand in the lee of the obstacle. Eventually a dune is formed. Plants then grow on it which stabilize

it & trap more sand.

CORAL REEF

Conditions required for growth of coral reef:

Problem Emersion due to overflow of

water Saline environment

Lack of oxygen

Solution

Plants adapt to water environment

Plants have waxy covering prevents entry of salt

Long roots take in air through pores when possibly

o Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20°Co Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deepo Water free from sediment/clear/availability of lighto Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpollutedo Plentiful supply of planktono Lack of strong currents

Benefits and drawbacks of mangrove swamps:

Benefits:o Provide habitat and protection many aquatic lifeo Important area for fishing industryo Slows water flow allowing for fertile deposits

Fringing reef Coral reefs grow in

the shallow waterof the coast in tropical areas

Barrier reef Due to plate

tectonics islandstarts to sink

Reef grows to keep up with the sinking, but a lagoon develops between reef & land

Coral atoll These form

around islandsthat are sinking.

Coral growth keeps up with this& island keeps sinking

Eventually island sinks below sealevel forming aring of coral with a lagoon in the centre.

o Protects coast from erosion – dissipates wave energyo Advance outwards – leaves fertile land for settlementso Mangrove wood collected for firewoodo Work like a natural water cleaning system

Drawbacks:o Noxious and impenetrableo Full of disease

Interdependence between Coral Reefs and Mangrove Swamps:

MANGROVE SWAMPS Trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats Conditions for mangrove swamps to grow:o Topical or subtropical environmento Shore is soft and muddy – easy to take root

Shoreline must be undisturbed for them to prosper

COASTAL DEFENCES

Hard Engineering Rip-rap: giant boulders placed at the foot of cliffs, designed to

absorb waves energy and protect cliffs behind. Can be effective,but does look ugly, reduces access to beach and can be expensive

Gabion: uses large boulders placed in cages which means can be installed quickly and is fairly effective. However, it also looks ugly, reduces access and can be expensive.

Groynes: designed to stop longshore drift transporting away beach material. Can be effective in maintaining a beach, but need replacing regularly, look ugly and can cause problems down coast.

Sea wall: made out of concrete and are aimed to absorb waves energy. Sometimes curved to direct waves energy back out to sea.Very effective, but are expensive, ugly and reduce access


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Breakwater: are built out into the sea and are a coats first line of defence. Instead of breaking on coast, waves, break on breakwater. Often found around the mouths of rivers and ports. They are expensive and can disrupt shipping and animals.

Revetments: similar to sea walls, but often built out of wood. Found at the foot of cliffs and are designed at absorb the wavesenergy. Need replacing regularly & don’t protect against storms

Soft Engineering Dune Stabalisation: planting vegetation on berm of beach or on

dunes, making them more stable (roots) and reducing the moisture content (root uptake)

Cliff Regrading: make cliffs less steep; reducing angle reduces undercutting and risk of cliff collapsing

Beach Nourishment: adding more sand to the beach. Beaches are natural defences, so by making them bigger, you are creating anatural defence.

Beach Drainage: removing some of the excess water reduces stress on the cliff.

Managed Retreat: allowing sea to take back land. Low value land is often chosen to be flooded by sea.

WEATHER, CLIMATE & NATURAL VEGETATION WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so thatthey collect the same amount of water & so comparisons can be made Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:o Funnel (A) to collect the water.o Container to collect water which may

be graduated. It is emptied once every24hrs at the same time.

o Rain is measured in millimeters.o Sunk into ground, but not level so

splashes or surface water can’t get inMax-min thermometer: record max. & min. temp. over 24hr period Max thermometer contains

mercury & min contains alcohol As temp. rises, mercury expands &

pushes up a metal index and when it cools, mercury contracts and index is left in place at highest temp.

As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with it, but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it in place atlowest temp.

• Both indexes read once every 24hrs from bottom of index.Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of sunshine at a given location Burns a timeline Traces sun shine not the hours of

daylight The glass ball focus the light This burns a line onto the card

Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer):

Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it measures actual airtemperature

Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a fine cloth which is connected to areservoir of water.

Water evaporates from the cloth & cools the temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.

Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read

Barometer: Measure air pressure An aneroid barometer has a corrugated

chamber containing a vacuum As air pressure rises & falls, the

chamber contracts & expands. Levers conduct this movement to a

spindle which moves the pointer on thedial which records the air pressure in mm of mercury.

Anemometer: Measures wind speed. Three light rotating cups (mounted on a

high pole) are blown around by thewind the revolutions are counted &converted into m/s, km/h or knots

Wind vane: Records wind direction The fletching is blown by the wind so that

the arrow head points into the wind. Mounted on a high pole.

Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for insulation. Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted downwards to

prevent light getting in. Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground. On short grass so it’s standardized i.e. same amount of

reflectivity.

TYPES OF CLOUDS

CLIMATETropical Rainforest Tropical Desert

Location

Around equator, betweenTropic of Cancer andTropic of Capricorn =

‘tropics’

Between 5° and 30° north and south of

the equator

Mean temp.of hottest

month≈25°C ≈30°C

Mean temp. of coldest

month≈25°C >18°C

Annual temp. range <5°C <5°C

Rainfallamount >2000mm <250mm

Rainfalldistribution Same throughout year Irregular

Wind Low StrongCloud Heavy Almost none

Humidity High LowPressure Low High

FACTORS AFFFECTING TEMPERATURE Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler

summers Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating between land

and sea affects temperature of prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature

Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer

Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per 100m)Pressure Systems:

Depression AnticycloneAir movement Upwards DownwardsAir pressure Low HighWinddirection

Anticlockwise towardsthe centre

Clockwise away fromthe cente

Isobars Close together Far apart

Associated weather

Short sunny spells;longer periods of wind

cloud and rain

Dry; usually sunny;light winds; nights may

be cold

Frequency All year – mostly insummer and winter Ocassionaly in winter

ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL RAINFOREST

Vegetation grows in distinct layers. Emergent layer: tall trees up to 50m. Few lower branches. Grow

above others to get full sunlight. Main canopy: trees 30-40m forming a continuous canopy. Few

lower branches. Under canopy: trees 20m high (& young trees) – less dense can

survive in less sunlight. Shrub layer: low shrubs & saplings. Shade plants.Forest floor: little grows except fungi – too little light. Since the trees grow tall, have large buttress roots for support Lianas use large trees as a support in order to reach the sunlight. Epiphytes grow on trees to get light & have hanging roots that

collect rainwater. Leaves shed water easily having drip tips & “channels” to direct


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Cirrus: found high in the atmosphere, common throughout the world, thin and wispy in appearance and move fairly quickly

Stratus: low level, usually grey in colour, move fast and can produce light rain and snow.

Cumulonimbus: large clouds up to 10km high and across, produce rain, thunder and lightening, usually found in spring and summer

Cumulus: fairly low clouds, look like lumps of cotton wool, can produce light rain and each individual clouds has a short life cycle

WEATHER SYMBOLS Cloud cover: measured in eighths. Hold sheet directly above your

head & estimate the cloud cover directly above you.

Warm and cold front symbols:

Relief Rain Warm moist air

from the sea Forced to rise over

mountain/hill Cools as it rises Condensation Clouds form Rain E.g. West of UK

TYPES OF RAINFALL

Frontal Rain Warm airmass

meets colder airmass

Warm air mass rises over colder

Condensation Clouds form Rain E.g. All of UK in

Winter

Convectional Rain Sun heats ground

which heats air Warm air rises Cools as it rises Condensation Clouds form Rain E.g. South of UK

Weather:o The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,

including changes in temperature, rainfall and humidityo This can vary from day to day and from place to place

Climate:o This is the average conditions over a longer period of

time, usually a few years


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INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

AND HUMAN ACTIVITIESHAZARDS &

OPPURTUNITIES

DEFORESTATION OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

Reasons for deforestation:o Farming: demand for food increases with population - need

to clear more usable ground

Environmental Hazards Volcanic eruptions Earthquakes Tropical storms Flooding Drought

Environmental Oppurtunities

Renewavle energy sources:o Droughts = solar powero Volcanic land = geothermal

Medical research and genetic engineering of crops

Flooding = alluvium = fertile Tourism = source of wealth Tropical rainforests = wood

o Hydro-Electric Power: land may need to be removed to build damn or floodable area

o Mining: demand for resources increase – rainforests hold plenty

o Road building: increased congestion requires new roads –rainforest in the way

o Settlements: population increase causes cities to become bigger requiring more land

o Timber: self-explanatory Problems due to deforestation:o Flooding: less interception by vegetation thus more

flash floodso Landslides: removal of vegetation causes soil to

become unstableo Biodiversity Loss: deforestation kills off unknown species,

since they will have no homeo Less Photosynthesis: causes imbalance of oxygen and

carbon dioxide in atmosphereo Silting: rivers, seas and oceans become more difficult

to navigate due to reduced deptho Desertification: soil loses components vital to survival of plants

– become hardo Indigenous: these people lose their homes, more

importantly impact their societyo Less Rainfall: Less interception = less transpiration =

fewer clouds = less rainfall

ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL DESERT

Plants such as cacti: Have thick, waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration; Fleshy stems to store water; Leaves reduced to spines to reduce surface area for transpiration

& prevent animals eating them & sunken stomata.Shrubs have: Small, waxy leaves & long tap roots to reach down to water table

and/or shallow roots to collect any moisture before it evaporates. Seeds can lie dormant for years. After rain they germinate quickly,

flower & produce seeds within 2-3 weeks.

DEVELOPMENT

Affluence: general level of prosperity enjoyed by population Appropriate Aid: resources suited to basic conditions prevailing in

receiving country Development: progress in terms of economic growth, use of

technology and human welfare Development Gap: difference in standards of living between

richest and poorest countries Free Trade: trade between countries is not restricted by laws and

formalities Quality of Life: often used as an umbrella term taking into account

GDP and human welfare

MAIN INDICATORS

Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total population Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of total

population Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total value of goods and services

produced annually GDP per Capita: GDP per head of population Human Welfare: condition of population i.e. diet, housing,

healthcare, education, etc. Infant Mortality: avg. number of deaths of infants under 1, per

1000 live births, per year Life expectancy: average number of years a person might be

expected to live Intermediate Technology: simple, easily learned technology used

in economic activities Human Development Index (HDI): measures and compares

international development

GLOBALIZATIO

N Process in which the world is becoming increasingly

interconnected Causes of globalization:o Improvements in transportationo Freedom of tradeo Improvements of communicationso Labour availability and skills

FARMER’S DECISIONSuccessful Year

Buying more land Buying better and newer

equipment e.g. new tractor Improving drainage/irrigation Buying new varieties of seed,

(GM crops) New buildings/more farms

Bad Year Sell some of your livestock Sell some of your land Diversify by opening a shop Try and farm more intensively

by buying more fertilisers andpesticides

FACTORS AFFECTING FARMING Temperature determines crops grown Crops grow where there is an adequate growing season There must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow Irrigation needed if insufficient rain Cereal crops/vines need sunshine to ripen Too much rainfall may flood crops/require drainage system In areas with frost/long winter hardy animals may be kept If it is windy wind breaks are needed etc. Better/alluvial soil means arable farming otherwise pastoral Flat relief means arable and hilly relief means pastoral

GREEN REVOLUTION

The introduction of modern western style farming techniques inLEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's.

High Yield Varieties:o Developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields.o Were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties

Successes HYV did increase food

production and made countries more self-sufficient

Food prices began to fall making; affordable for poor

Shorter growing season, more crops could be grown

The yields were more reliable Different crops were grown

adding variety to local diet There were surpluses so crops

could be traded commercially Farmers became wealthier

Failures Required fertilisers &

pesticides polluted water The HYV were more prone to

disease and drought More water had to be diverted

to growing crops Many poorer farmers couldn’t

afford to buy expensive HYV Mechanisation led to

unemployment Many natural varieties lost Countries & farmers became

dependent on foreigners

MONOCULTURE

Growing of only one type of crop Cash crops: crops that are normally grown in large plantations for

the purpose of selling and making a profitAdvantages Become more efficient Profitable Can have high yields Easily controllable Low training required

Disadvantages If demand falls, no profit Less variety Bad season, no profit Labor becomes deskilled Only source of income

ORGANIC CROPS AND FARMING Farming that uses natural varieties and natural farming

techniques. There is only very limited use of fertlisers.Advantages

Longer to ripen; better flavour Low fertilizer use; less run-off Less chemicals to consumers Higher prices when sold

Disadvantages Crops are not uniform May be susceptible to disease Take longer to grow May need more water


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IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION

Positive impacts of globalization:o Economies of scale, cost per item reduced when operating on

a larger scaleo TNCs helps countries; provide new jobs & skills for local peopleo TNCs bring money and foreign currency to local economieso Allows for sharing of ideas, experiences and lifestyles of

people and cultureso Increases awareness of events in far-away parts of the world

Negative impacts of globalization:o Globalisation operates mostly in interests of richest countrieso No guarantees that wealth from inward investment will benefit

local communityo Profits are sent back to the MEDC where the TNC is basedo TNCS, with massive economies of scale, may drive local

companies out of businesso If cheaper in another country, TNC might close down

factory making locals redundanto Absence of laws may allow TNCs to operate in LEDCs in

ways not allowed in MEDCso Threat to the world's cultural diversity, such as the

traditions and languageso Industry may begin to thrive in LEDCs at expense of jobs in

MEDCs

HumanInputs

Things that

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMSPhysicalInputs

Process Outputs

The eventsare built or

made by humans and

added on to a farm

Labor/rent Machinery Building Animal feed Fertilizers Pesticide Market

demand Government

controls Seeds

Natural things

that are foundon a farm or added to a

farm

Soil Precipitation Temp. Length of

Season Alluvium Floods Relief Drainage

that take place on a

farm to turn inputs into

ouputs Rearing Shearing Ploughing Fertilizing Weeding Irrigating Cultivating Harvesting Slaughtering Planting

Things that are produced on a famr that are

often sold

Profits Meat

products Wool Milk Waste Crops Pollution Erosion

CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING TYPES1. S p e c i a li sa t i o n

Arable(crops)

2. E c o n o mi c S t a t u s Commercial (for profit)

3. I n te ns i ty o f L a n d U s e Extensive

Pastoral(animals)

Mixed

(both)

Subsistence(to survive)

Intensive Normally a larger farm Few inputs per hectare

Few workers per hectare Low yields per hectare4. La n d te n u r e

Shifting & Nomadic (where

farmers move from one area to another)


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Normally a smaller farm

High inputs per hectare Lots of workers per hectare High yields per hectare

Sedentary

(farm location is permanent)


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GM CROPS AND FARMING Genetically modified crops are crops that have their genes altered

to improve quality and/or quantity

An LEDC e.g. Ghana

Majority in primary sector:o Lack of machinery available

in farming, forestry and mining.

Advantages Uniform in shape – easy to

transport/ appeal consumers Growing season shorter Drought resistant – less water Higher yields

Disadvantages

Natural species may die Tastse often not as good Lead to development of super

weeds – stronger than GM No one knows long term effect

on humans

o Farming very important because most eat what they grow.

Few in secondary sector:o Lack of factories because machinery is too expensiveo MNCS manufacture instead

Tertiary may be larger than secondary:o Most informal work is in the tertiary sector

FAMINE

When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to undernourishment. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.

o Growth of jobs in tourism

An NIC e.g. Brazil While Brazil’s economic base is

developing, there are still a large

Human Causes Increasing population; supply

cannot keep up with demand Overgrazing reduces integrity

of soil and can cause topsoil erosion and soil degradation.

Overcultivating causes soil degradation, using up and notgiving nutrients recovery time

Deforestation of woodland, damages integrity of soil as well as its source of nutrients.

Farming and industrial pollution can both degrade land and reduce crop yields

Corruption of governmentEffects: Hunger Susceptible to infectious diseases

Physical Causes Too hot or cool temperatures

can kill crops and animals. Shortage of rainfall kills most

crops or require irrigation Too much rainfall can flood &

kill crops or wash away topsoil reducing soils fertility leading to low yield

Natural disasters can destroy large areas of agricultural land and kill or injure farmers.

If soil is infertile because the bedrock contains few minerals it can be hard to cultivate landand lead to low yields.

number of people employed inprimary industries such as farming.

There are a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries.

One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of

health care, education and transport.

THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM

Input: resources which may be physical (natural) such as iron ore or human (artificial) such as labour.

Processes: turning raw materials into usable things such as steelmaking and also turning usable things into other things forexample assembling cars.

Outputs: profit or loss + waste materials

LOCATING AN INDUSTRY

Physical Factors Power/energy: the industry should be near the raw materials or a

port/station where the materials come from Impair physical and mental development Reduce labour productivity

INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS

SECTORS Primary industry: industry, such as farming, fishing, forestry and

mining that extracts raw materials directly from the land or sea. Secondary industry: an industry that processes or manufactures

primary raw materials, assembles parts made by other industries or is part of the construction industry.

Tertiary industry: an occupation, such as health, education, transport and retailing, which provides a service to people

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURES

An MEDC e.g. the UK Low proportion in primary sector:o Mechanizations of jobs in primaryo Primary resources exhausted

o Resources are now imported. Numbers falling in secondary sector:o Mechanization - as machines are

taking over jobs in factories. Tertiary sector is main growth area:o Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial serviceso Greater demand for leisure services as people have more free

time and become wealthier.o More jobs become available in the tertiary sector.


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Natural routes: river valleys and flat land is good for transport

Site and land: flat land & enough space might be needed, cheap land

Human & Economic Factors

Labour: quantity (industry might need many people) and/or quality (very-skilled workers, close to a university)

Capital: (money) Markets: size and location of market Transport: cost increases when items are bulky (steel), fragile

(glassware), heavy (steel) or perishable (fruit/veg.) Government policies Leisure facilities: countryside views / amenities

Hi-Tech Industries

High-tech industries are footloose as they do not need to be near raw materials so are located:o In a pleasant working environment near to large markets

and major transport routes. ORo Companies (especially foreign) may be tempted by the

government to locate in former industrial areas which often had higher levels of unemployment

LEISURE ACTIVITIES AND TOURISM

Tourism: the occupation of providing information, accommodation, transportation and other services to tourists.

Gas

Oil

Coal


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FACTORS THAT LEAD TO CHANGES IN TOURIST PATTERNS Transport and accessibility: access to various means of

transportation such as trains, cars, planes, ships etc. Scenery: the landscape and visual appearance of a place. Weather: depending on the type of vacation wanted, climate is

important e.g. for a ski trip, a cold destination is necessary. Accommodation: quality of hotels, camps, resorts, parks and their

affordability. Amenities: the various recreational, historical, leisure facilities

and sites that are offered and can be accessed.

REASONS FOR INCREASE IN TOURISM

Greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay Greater mobility: increase in car ownership + more aircraft Improved accessibility and transport facilities:

Consolidation: Growth continues with resources diverted to tourism sector. Areas may change to the exclusive use of tourists, possibly alienating locals.

Stagnation: Increased opposition to tourism, tourist facilities may become tired and number of tourist arrival plateaus or declines.

Rejuvenation: A tourist destination rebrands itself or improves tourist facilities, offers promotions or improves transportation.

Decline: No improvements are made to the tourist destination and the number of tourists continues to declines.

ECOTOURIS

M Ecotourism: Holidays that involve eco-related activities and are

sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding, etc. Sustainable tourism: Tourist activities that are socially,

environmentally and economically sustainable.How Ecotourist Resorts Can Be

o Better roadso Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays

More leisure time: longer vacations, shorter working hours, people work from home, more elderly

Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirements Change in recreational activities Advertising of holiday destinations: TV and the Internet Green tourism

ADVANTAGES OF TOURISM Encouraging tourism will give country a chance to improve and

increase its GDP per capita rate (overall income is increased.) Brings in foreign money, culture, tradition; diversity

Typical Ecotourism Activities Hiking Kayaking Bird watching Safari (animal watching) Cycling Beach cleaning Tree planting Completing bird and animal

surveys

Eco-friendly

Use renewable energy sources Build using only local products Serve only local food, using

locally sourced products Employ only local staff Recycle all waste Treat and clean all water Educate guests about the

importance of protecting theenvironment

Promote local culture Provides jobs for the unemployed Creates more business opportunities Positive compliments from tourists will increase the publicity To please the tourists, new infrastructure will have to be built

such as roads, bridges, buildings etc. Cultural festivals may become a tourist attraction

DISADVANTAGES OF TOURISM

Increased congestion and pollution Damage to physical landscape Global brands may replace local businesses Traditional culture lost Inflation affecting locals Seasonal unemployment A shortage of services e.g. water supplies Social/cultural problems

BUTLER’S PRODUCT CYCLE

ENERGY AND WATER RESOURCES

TYPES OF RESOURCES

Non-renewable resources: These are finite. Fossil fuels were initially produced by photosynthesis. In theory they are renewable, but it takes millions of years for them to form. E.g.coal, oil, gas, (uranium).

Renewable resources: These are continuous e.g. solar, wind, water, geothermal. They are therefore sustainable.

NON-RENEWABLE

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) used mainly by MEDCs Uranium for nuclear energy Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in MEDCs but

important in LEDCs; women walk long distances each day to collect wood. They cook over open wood fires or wood stoves

Advantages Disadvantages

Exploration: newly discovered tourist location that only receives a very small amount of tourists.

Involvement: area becomes better known; tourism is supported by local population and start to build basic tourist infrastructure.

Development: tourism becomes an important sectorof economy. More investment from foreign tour firms.

Infrastructure becomes developed.

Lasts 300yrs, now become

more efficient, needed to make coke

More efficient than coal, easier to transport, diversity of uses, petro-chemicals

Cleanest of fossil fuels, cheaper than oil, easy to distribute


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Cost of production high,

produces lot of GH gases, dangerous, open cast = visual pollution, costly to transport, acid rainLasts only 50-70yrs, oil spills, releases GH gases, prices fluctuate, refineries use lot of space, acid rainReleases methane, explosive, prices fluctuate, acid rain, GH gases.


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Types Geothermal Wind Solar Bio fuel Hydroelectric Tidal Wave

RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLIES

Advantages Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels Alleviate the world’s energy crisis Offer opportunities for development of

alternative energy sources They do not pollute They do not add to Global Warming The source lasts forever

Disadvantages

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WATER SHORTAGES

Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged period. Famine: crops fail & livestock die due to water shortage Groundwater supply deplete and aquifers begin to dry up Conflict arise if there is a limited supply of water and water

resources are shared People may be forced to relocate due to famine and drought Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of waterborne diseases Eutrophication due to run-off from farms containing fertilizer Dirty water and eutrophication may cause loss of biodiversity

Difficult to generate quantities of electricity required Energy produced incomparable to fossil fuels Unreliable supply of constant energy; wind doesn’t blow everyday Some countries do not have the conditions for these sources Cost of renewable energy technology very high Cost of fossil fuel generation much less

NUCLEAR POWER

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS & BENEFITS: RESOURCE CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS WITH DEVELOPMENT

Soil erosion Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is washed away

by rain because there are no tree roots to retain it.Benefits

Technology for nuclear power exists

Abundance of radioactive supply as fuel

Releases very low amounts of greenhouse gases

Reduces dependency on fossil fuel countries

Nuclear waste stored safely underground

Electric supply altered easily based on demand

Drawbacks

Risk of nuclear accidents(Chernobyl)

Risk of nuclear plants as terrorist targets

Nuclear technology can be used to make WMDs

Risky to transport material Cost of power plants are high Risk of nuclear radiation

related to cancer Uranium mining dangerous

and polluting Remains radioactive for long

In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers and pollutes the drinking water.

Global warming Greenhouse effect is when infrared radiation passes through the

atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules.

The effect of this is warming of surface and lower atmosphere Global warming happens as a result of too much greenhouse gas Effects:o Melting ice-sheets = rising sea levels = increase in stormso Change in the distribution of precipitationo Plants and wildlife might not have the time to adjusto Lower crop yields in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin Americao More people at risk from insect-borne & water-borne diseases

SITING OF THERMAL POWER STATION

Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and earthquakes)

Needs flat land which is easier to build on Needs to be near a large coal supply as coal is heavy to transport

and a lot is needed Needs impermeable rock Needs to be close to a railway to bring in large amounts of fuel Needs a water source

SITING OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION

Needs high rainfall and low evaporation levels Needs a steep sided valley Needs impermeable rock Needs to be away from large centers of population

SITING OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

Needs large amounts of water for cooling purposes so is often by the coast / a river

Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and earthquakes)

Needs flat land which is easier to build on Needs impermeable rock Needs to be away from large centers of population

WATER USES

Agriculture: to water the plants etc. Domestic: cooking, cleaning and drinking Industrial: heated to make steam in order to turn turbines, and

for cooling down reactors


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Greenhouses gases are:

o CO2 from burning fossil fuels or woodo Methane from decomposing organic matter and waste gaseso CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons from aerosols, air conditioners,

foam packaging and refrigerators (now banned)o Oxides of Nitrogen from car exhausts, power stations and

agricultural fertilizerAir pollution: cars and power stations Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing

substances causes oxygen starvation Sulfur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory

problems and acid rain Nitrogen oxides: nitrogen and oxygen from air combine in a hot

environment (furnace or engine); same effect as sulfur dioxide Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous systemWater Pollution: Nitrates & phosphates from fertilizers cause eutrophication Oil spilling into the sea Acid rain:

o Makes lakes/ponds acidic and damage fishes gills, killing themo Destroys top of trees and damages roots = dead tree

Health hazards for humans Damages limestone buildings and sculptures Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic fieldVisual pollution: all man-made things are ugly compared to the unspoiled natureNoise pollution: Vehicles (including planes) – Machinery in industries and farms Noisy humans

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