ì The rise of the Nazi Party and its consolidation of ... · Germans did not sign, they would...

ì

THE GERMAN PEOPLE• Elected the President

and the members of theReichstag.

• All men and women over the age of twentycould vote.

• All adults had equal rights and the right offree speech.

The rise of the Nazi Party and itsconsolidation of power, c. 1929–34

What was the impact of the Weimar period on the rise ofthe Nazis?

The political and economic problems of Weimar

The end of World War One

In March 1918, the German commander onthe Western Front, General Ludendorff,decided to gamble with an all out attack. Hehoped to win the war quickly before largenumbers of American troops arrived. TheLudendorff Offensive was initially successful,but ultimately it failed. By 1918, Germancivilians were also suffering great hardshipand starvation. There were many strikes anddemonstrations. By November 1918, soldiersand sailors began to mutiny. Realizing thathe had lost control, the German king, KaiserWilhelm, abdicated and fled to theNetherlands. A provisional government wasimmediately set up and a republic wasdeclared. On 11 November 1918, the newgovernment agreed to the signing of anarmistice to end the First World War.

The Weimar Constitution

All countries have rules for how they are tobe governed. These rules are called aconstitution. Sometimes the rules are writtendown, sometimes not. In a country likeGermany in 1919, which had just got rid ofone system of government — the Kaiser’s —and was trying to establish a new one,deciding on a new constitution was veryimportant. Due to the chaos in Berlin at theend of 1918, the provisional government metin the town of Weimar in central Germany todraw up the new constitution. This is whyhistorians refer to the years 1919S33 as the‘Weimar’ period.

THE PRESIDENT• Elected every seven years.• Controlled the armed forces.• Stayed out of the day-to-day

running of the country.• Could make laws in an emergency without

going through the Reichstag (Parliament).

Appointed…

THE CHANCELLOR• Responsible for the day-to-day

running of the country.• Chosen by the President. • Needed support from the Reichstag.• Like a Prime Minister.

Needed the support of more than half of…

THE REICHSTAG • Voted on new laws.• Members elected every

four years, through asystem called proportional representation(PR). This system gave small parties achance to have a say in Parliament.

Was elected by…

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WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE WEIMAR PERIOD ON THE RISE OF THE NAZIS?

The Weimar Constitution was a braveattempt to set up a government that wasgenuinely democratic. Power had beencarefully balanced between the President, theChancellor and the Reichstag. Unfortunately,

Germany was a very divided country in 1919.Politicians had no experience of makingdemocracy work. Moreover, many influentialGermans, such as judges and generals, werehostile to the new system of government.

Strengths of the Weimar Constitution Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution

U All Germans had equal rights. Both menand women over the age of 20 could votein elections.

U Proportional representation (PR) meantthat political parties were given seats inproportion to the number of votes theygot. If a party received 10% of the votes itgot 10% of the seats in the Reichstag.This was fair.

U A strong president was necessary to keepcontrol over the government.

Y The Weimar Republic had many enemies.Was it wise to give equal rights to thosewho wished to destroy it?

Y PR encouraged lots of small parties. Noone party could get a majority sogovernments had to be coalitions wheretwo or more parties joined together. Thisled to weak and unstable governments.

Y The President had too much power.Article 48 of the constitution said that, inan emergency, the President couldabandon democracy and rule by decree.

Y The army’s generals had fought for theKaiser and wanted his return.

Y Judges and civil servants had worked forthe Kaiser too and were also hostile to theWeimar Republic.

The Treaty of Versailles

One of the Weimar government’s first actshad been to surrender in November 1918.This meant that many Germans wouldalways associate the new republic with theshame of defeat. Moreover, most ordinaryGermans were deeply shocked when theydiscovered that Germany had lost the war.Under the Kaiser, only good news about thewar was allowed to be printed so the Germanpeople thought that they were winning.Some people claimed that the German armyhad been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the newWeimar government. This accusation wastotally unfair, but many Germans believed it.The new government was immediatelyunpopular and the politicians who signed theArmistice were nicknamed the ‘Novembercriminals’.

Matters grew worse in June 1919 when thevictorious allies — Britain, France and theUSA — announced the terms of the peacetreaty that would be imposed on Germany.These terms were agreed at the Palace ofVersailles in France, but the new Germangovernment was excluded from thediscussions. The German people knew theywould have to pay a price for losing the war.However, they were optimistic that the peacetreaty would not be a harsh one.

When the terms of the treaty first becameknown, the German government refused tosign it and resigned. It was a hopelessgesture. The Allies made it clear that, if theGermans did not sign, they would resumethe war. A new government was formedwhich reluctantly signed the Treaty. Theycalled it ‘the shameful diktat of Versailles’.Turn over to find out why.

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How harsh were the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?

War GuiltIn all, the Treaty contained 440 separateclauses, but it was Clause 231 — the ‘warguilt’ clause — which the Germans foundparticularly humiliating. It stated thatGermany was entirely to blame for causingthe war.

ReparationsAs Germany was held to be responsible forthe war, the Allies could claim reparations(compensation) for damage caused by thewar. No sum was fixed at Versailles. But, in1921, a special commission fixed a sum of£6,600 million to be paid in annualinstallments.

Military restrictionsThe German armed forces had to bedrastically reduced.• The air force had to be disbanded.• The army was limited to 100,000 soldiers

and no tanks.• The navy was limited to only six

battleships and no submarines.• The Rhineland would be occupied by the

Allies for fifteen years and no Germantroops or forts allowed in the area.

Territorial lossesGermany lost 13% of its land, whichcontained about six million of its people.

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The first four points of the German Workers’ Party’s programme, 1920. It changed SOURCE B its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP or Nazis) in the same year.

Ÿ1. We demand the union of all Germansin a Greater Germany on the basis ofnational self- determination.

2. We demand equality of rights for theGerman people in its dealings withother nations, and the revocation ofthe peace treaty of Versailles.

3. We demand land and territory to feedour people and settle our surpluspopulation.

4. Only members of the nation may becitizens of the state. Only those ofGerman blood, whatever their creed,may be members of the nation. As aresult, no Jew may be a citizen.

Many Germans lived in Austria, Poland andCzechoslovakia — a new state created by thepeace treaties after the First World War.

The Germans hated the Treaty of Versailles,which forbade the union of Austria andGermany, and moved borders so that‘Germans’ in the former Austro-HungarianEmpire were now living in Italy and Poland.

The Nazis wanted to take over LEBENSRAUM,or living space, in eastern Europe for thegrowing German population.

The Jews were successful in business andcommerce in Germany. The Nazis werejealous of their power. Hitler himself had anirrational hatred of the Jews. The Nazisthought only racially pure Germans, calledARYANS by the Nazis, could be citizens.

The early development of the Nazi Party

The Nazi Party was founded in January 1919by Anton Drexler. Initially, it was called theGerman Workers’ Party. Drexler and aboutforty other members held their meetings in abeer cellar in Munich. They had little moneyand no real political programme. All themembers knew was that they disliked theWeimar Republic and wanted to makeGermany great again, as it had been beforethe war.

At the end of the First World War, AdolfHitler was recovering in hospital from beingbadly gassed. Despite being an Austrian,Hitler had joined the German army when thewar broke out in 1914. He was a goodsoldier, who won medals for bravery.Germany’s defeat in 1918 left him extremelybitter. Like many other soldiers, he blameddefeat on the Communists and Jews who hefelt had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’.

After the war, Hitler returned to Munichwhere he had lived before joining the army.He was still employed by the army. One ofhis duties was to check up on the various

extremist groups which were flourishing inMunich at that time. In 1919, Hitler was sentto a meeting of a small, extreme nationalistgroup called the German Workers’ Party.He liked what he heard and he was invited tojoin. Hitler’s organizational ability was quicklyrecognized by Drexler and, in 1920, he wasput in charge of the party’s propagandamachine. Hitler also helped to draft theparty’s programme (see Source B).

Hitler’s renewed membership card SOURCE A for the German Workers’ Party (DAP), 1920.

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In 1920, the party was also renamed theNational Socialist German Workers’ Party(NSDAP or Nazis). In addition to the points inSource B, the Nazis openly proclaimed theirhatred of Communism. They saw the SocialDemocratic government as a Communistgovernment and they made no secret of theirplans to overthrow it when the time wasright.

Hitler as leaderHitler had a powerful and dominatingpersonality. By 1921 he had replaced Drexleras leader of the Nazis. Hitler was intelligentand decisive. Although he was a small man,he had great physical presence. He hadpiercing blue eyes that he would fix on hislisteners and he was a charismatic publicspeaker. When giving a speech he wouldoften arrive late at a meeting, then standsilent for several minutes. He would startsoftly then gradually build up to a furiousfinish, driving the audience wild withenthusiasm. Hitler rehearsed carefully forimportant speeches, even practising his handgestures and his posture.

A photograph of Hitler practising SOURCE C his speaking style, 1925.

The SAHitler organized the Nazi Party along militarylines. In 1921, he set up his own private armycalled the SA (Sturm-Abteilung or Storm-troopers). They were mostly unemployed ex-soldiers. Because they dressed in brownuniforms they were also known as theBrownshirts. Supposedly, the SA was formedto protect speakers at Nazi meetings. Inpractice, the SA often started the violencethemselves by breaking up the meetings ofrival political parties, such as the SocialDemocrats and Communists. Ernst Röhm, afriend of Hitler, was put in charge of the SA.

The pledge taken by members SOURCE D of the SA.

ŸAs a member of the storm-troop of theNSDAP, I pledge myself to its storm flag:to be always ready to stake life and limbin the struggle for the aims of themovement; to give absolute militaryobedience to my military superiors andleaders; to bear myself honourably inand out of service; to be always sociableable towards other comrades.

The swastikaHitler personally designed the Nazi flag, withits symbol, the swastika (see Source E). Thecolours red, white and black had also beenthe colours of Germany’s flag under theKaiser. Very quickly, the swastika became thebest-known political symbol in Germany.

The Nazis formally adopted the SOURCE E swastika as their symbol in 1920 and used it onthe party’s flag (above), badge and armband.

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What were the main Nazi beliefs set out in Mein Kampf?

The Treaty of Versailles is unfairand too harsh. It must beignored.

All Germans must be unitedunder the control of one strongleader (the Führer).

The Germans are a master racecalled Aryans. They need livingspace (lebensraum) so they mustseize land to the east ofGermany.

All Jews and Communists mustbe destroyed as they are thecause of Germany’s problems,including the loss of the GreatWar.

The Munich Putsch and its consequences

In 1923, Adolf Hitler emerged fromobscurity. By now the Nazi Party had about55,000 members and Hitler felt strongenough to make a bid for power.

In November 1923 Hitler, supported by600 storm-troopers, burst into a meetingheld in the Burgerbrau beer hall in Munich. Amember of the regional government, whohad been speaking at the meeting, was takenhostage. Hitler’s aim was to seize control ofMunich and then march on Berlin. GeneralLudendorff, a popular First World War hero,would then be set up as leader of Germany.

Unfortunately, for Hitler, the MunichPutsch was a disaster. The Weimargovernment responded quickly. Theyordered the army to crush the revolt. Whenarmed Nazis marched to a military base inMunich they were met by armed police andsoldiers. In the fighting that followed, sixteenNazis were killed. The leaders of the putschwere arrested and put on trial. Ludendorffwas found not guilty while Hitler, found guiltyof treason, was sent to prison for five years.

The putsch did help Hitler in one way. Thejudge at his trial was sympathetic to theNazis, so he let Hitler use the trial to get hisideas across to the German people. His trialspeech was reported in all the newspapers.

The publicity meant that Hitler achievednational fame.

While he was in prison, Hitler rethoughthis strategy. He decided that he could notseize power violently. Instead, he would haveto take power by being elected.

Hitler spelt out his new strategy SOURCE F in this letter written from prison in 1924.

ŸInstead of working to achieve power byan armed rising, we will have to hold ournoses and enter the Reichstag. If out-voting our enemies takes longer thanoutshooting them, at least the result willbe guaranteed by their own constitution.Sooner or later, we shall have a majorityand after that we shall have Germany!

Hitler and Mein Kampf

During his prison sentence, Hitler enjoyedcomfortable conditions. He was allowed hisown room, as many visitors as he wantedand time to write. While there he dictatedMein Kampf (My Struggle). This bookoutlined his main ideas about how Germanyshould be ruled. Hilter’s fame meant thatMein Kampf became a best-seller. Afterserving only nine months of his five-yearsentence, Hitler was released from prison.

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Heinrich Himmler (1900–45)

• A teacher’s son, he failed to make a living as a chicken farmer.

• Himmler joined the German army in 1918, but he did notactually fight in World War One.

• Obsessive, timid and clumsy. He once fainted at the sight ofJews being killed.

• Himmler joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and took part in theMunich Putsch.

• Hitler put him in charge of the SS. After 1934, Himmler wasalso responsible for the Gestapo and the concentration camps.

• From 1941, he took charge of the ‘Final Solution’ — the massmurder of all Europe’s Jews.

• When captured by the Allies, Himmler committed suicide.

Hitler’s henchmen: the other Nazi leaders

The Nazi Party was dominated by Hitler, but he was surrounded by skilled and committed‘henchmen’. The leading Nazis were ambitious men who often competed with each other toincrease their own power. Hitler often played one off against another. These were the men who,with Hitler, were responsible for the deaths of millions of people by 1945. As you read thesebiographies, decide why Hitler chose these men. Each had his own particular use: what was it?

Hermann Goering (1893–1946)

• He was from a very rich family with rich and powerful friends.

• A fighter pilot in World War One, he shot down twenty-twoenemy aircraft and won medals for bravery.

• Some said he was fat, loud, bigheaded, childish, greedy and adrug addict. Others thought he was highly intelligent, witty andcharming.

• He joined the Nazi Party in 1922 and was badly wounded in theMunich Putsch of 1923.

• In 1935, Hitler gave him the task of building up the Luftwaffe —the German air force. After 1936, Goering was also responsiblefor preparing Germany for war.

• He created the Gestapo — the Nazi secret police — and set upthe first concentration camps.

• Goering committed suicide by taking poison in 1946 whilst ontrail at the end of the war.

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Ernst Röhm (1887–1934)

• The son of poor, working-class parents.• Röhm was a professional soldier. As a captain in the German

army in World War One, he won the Iron Cross for bravery.• A good organizer, devoted to Hitler, violent, quick-tempered,

homosexual and a heavy drinker.• He helped to create the SA — the Nazi Party’s private army. • Röhm took part in the Munich Putsch, but was not imprisoned.

From 1925 to 1930, he worked as a military adviser in Bolivia.• He was murdered during the Night of the Long Knives in 1934.

Rudolf Hess (1894–1987)

• Born in Egypt to German parents.• He was a soldier and pilot in World War One.• A soft, sensitive and humourless man. He worshipped Hitler, did

not crave power and was not violent.• Hess joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and took part in the Munich

Putsch. In prison, Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to him.• Hitler made him Deputy Führer in 1932, but Hess never had

much power. In 1941 he flew to Scotland, without permission,to try to arrange a peace with the Allies.

• After the war, Hess was sentenced to life imprisonment. Hecommitted suicide in 1987, aged 93.

Dr Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945)

• The son of a poor factory worker.• Unable to fight in World War One due to a disability in his leg.• Small and physically weak, but highly intelligent, well-educated

and a brilliant speaker.• He joined the Nazi Party in 1922. Goebbels did not like Hitler at

first, but he soon came to admire him.• Hitler put him in charge of Nazi propaganda. From 1943 on, he

was also in charge of organizing civilians during World War Two.• Fiercely anti-Semitic, he issued the orders for Kristallnacht, the

night of anti-Jewish attacks in November 1938.• Goebbels shot himself in 1945 after shooting his wife and

helping to poison their six children.

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The impact of the Wall St Crash on Nazi support

Shortly after his release from prison, Hitlerre-launched the Nazi Party. He reorganized itto make it more effective in elections. Duringthe late 1920s the Nazis worked steadily.They ran many public meetings and trainedthousands of Nazis as speakers. Gradually,year by year, the Nazis increased theirmembership. By 1928, their membershiphad reached 100,000.

Despite this rise in membership, the Naziswere actually losing ground in the only placeit now really mattered — in the Reichstag.After four years of campaigning, in the 1928Reichstag elections, the Nazis received lessthan 3% of the vote and won only twelveseats. It was not until the difficult Depressionyears of the early 1930s that the Nazis beganto win mass support in Germany.

In October 1929, the Wall Street Crashbegan a worldwide slide into the GreatDepression. The effects were felt everywhere,but Germany was hit particularly badlybecause American banks recalled the loanswhich were the lifeblood of German industry.Businesses had to close. As world tradedeclined, German exports slumped. Millionsof people lost their jobs. Unemploymentreached a peak of just over six million by theearly part of 1932.

The rise in unemployment in SOURCE G Germany, 1928–33.

Unemployed Germans queuing in SOURCE H Hanover to register for the dole, 1930. Sceneslike this were repeated across Germany in theearly 1930s.

The Depression affected different people indifferent ways. For those who had lost theirjobs there was poverty, hunger andhomelessness. Of course, not all Germanssuffered equally, but even those who wereprotected from the worst of the Depressionfelt its impact in other ways.

Businessmen saw their businesses close.If they did manage to survive, they saw theirincome fall. This was because during theDepression people had less money to spend,even on essentials like food and clothes. Tomake matters worse, the government raisedtaxes to pay for looking after the increasingnumber of poor people. However, businessowners were not as badly hit as either theirworkers or farmers.

By 1932, forty per cent of all factoryworkers were unemployed. At the same time,the government cut unemployment benefitto save money. For the unemployed this wasa time of extreme poverty. Farmers hadalready been doing badly in the 1920s due tofalling prices. Now, in the 1930s, manyfarmers slipped further into debt.

Young people were also badly hit. By1933, over half of all Germans between theages of 16 and 30 were unemployed. Sixtyper cent of new university graduates couldnot get a job.

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The writer Heinrich Hauser describes what he saw as he toured Germany in 1932. SOURCE J

ŸAn almost unbroken chain of homeless men extends the whole length of the greatHamburg-Berlin highway. It is the same scene for the entire two hundred miles, and allthe highways in Germany over which I travelled this year.

They walked alone or in small groups with their eyes on the ground. They had the odd,stumbling gait of barefoot people, for their shoes were slung over their shoulders. Somewere skilled workers — carpenters with broad felt hats, milkmen with striped red shirts,and bricklayers with tall black hats — but they were in a minority. Far more numerouswere those to whom one could assign no special profession or craft — unskilled youngpeople for the most part who had been unable to find a place for themselves in any city ortown in Germany, and who had never had a job and never expected to have one.

A soup kitchen for unemployed SOURCE I Germans who could not afford to eat. Thegovernment kept food prices high to protectfarmers from the worst of the Depression.

A camp for the homeless in a SOURCE K Berlin park. There were so many homeless thatlarge camps of tents were set up. The tentswere numbered and erected in neat rows whicheven had names as if they were streets. Thecamps had children’s playgrounds andcommunal kitchens.

DatePolitical Party

May1928

September1930

July1932

November1932

March1933

Righ

t-wing

Centr

eLe

ft-wi

ng

Communist Party (KPD) 54 77 89 100 81

Social Democrats (SPD) 152 143 133 121 120

Democratic Party (DDP) 25 14 4 2 5

Centre Party (ZP) 61 68 75 70 73

People’s Party (DVP) 45 30 7 11 2

National Party (DNVP) 79 41 40 51 53

Nazi Party (NSDAP) 12 107 230 196 288

Elections held and seats won in the Reichstag, 1928–33. SOURCE L

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How and why did Hitler get appointed Chancellor inJanuary 1933?

How did the Depression weakenthe Weimar government?

ì Unpopular economic policiesFor fifty years or more Germans had judgedtheir country by its economic success. So ifthe economy was failing then the countrymust be going down the drain! The Weimargovernment seemed to have no idea what todo about the problems of risingunemployment and growing poverty.

The government did try to get Germanyout of depression, but with little success. TheChancellor, Heinrich Brüning, raised taxes,cut wages and reduced unemploymentbenefit — hardly the policies to win supportfrom the German people.

Heinrich Brüning was appointed as SOURCE A Chancellor in 1930. His policies to deal with theDepression earned him the nickname of the‘Hunger Chancellor’. He resigned in 1932.

í Presidential ruleThese policies also caused the collapse ofthe government as the Social Democratswithdrew from the coalition. Unable to gain

sufficient support in the Reichstag, theChancellor fell back on Article 48 of theWeimar Constitution (see pages 1–2) whichgave the President special powers in anemergency. Germany was now ruled bypresidential decree. But who was thePresident? An 84-year-old war hero whodisliked the Weimar Republic and whoseemed to be well past his prime.

Paul von Hindenburg served as SOURCE B Germany’s second president from 1925–34.

î The rise of extremismTo many Germans it seemed that theWeimar government was making a hopelessmess of handling the situation. Some peoplewho had never bothered to vote in electionsbefore now became more involved in politics.

From right and left they heard the claimsof extremist parties who said they could solveall these problems. The Communists saidthat the Depression showed that thecapitalist system was doomed and that onlycommunism had the answer. The Nazisblamed the Weimar Republic, the Treaty ofVersailles, the Communists and the Jews.

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HOW AND WHY DID HITLER GET APPOINTED CHANCELLOR IN JANUARY 1933?

As extremism increased, so too did politicalviolence. Nazi and Communist supportersfought regular battles. Five hundred werekilled or seriously wounded in a seven-weekfrenzy of political fighting during the electionsof 1932.

Police in Berlin on the way to deal SOURCE C with a political demonstration in 1932.

How did these problems help theNazis?

The Depression was a gift to Hitler and theNazis. For every problem the Nazis had anexplanation or a promise:

• The Weimar government is weak: youneed strong leadership. Hitler is your man.

• Unemployment? The Nazis will get peopleback to work on road-building and publicworks.

• Worried about the Communists? Look atthe Nazis’ Storm-troopers — we are theonly ones who really know how to dealwith the Communists.

Most importantly, Hitler, standing before acrowd delivering his powerful and movingspeeches, seemed to represent strong,decisive leadership in the great Germantradition going back to the Kaiser andbeyond. While the Weimar Republicappeared simply to be muddling throughindecisively, Hitler’s strong personality andpowerful ideas seemed to be just whatGermany needed.

In the Reichstag elections of 1930 the Nazismade their first great breakthrough, jumpingfrom twelve to 107 seats (see Source L onpage 10). They were suddenly the secondlargest party and were well ahead of theCommunists. In the presidential elections ofMarch 1932, Hitler stood againstHindenburg. He lost, but gained 37% of thevote. In the July 1932 Reichstag elections theNazis advanced to 230 seats and were thebiggest party. The Nazi Party was now themajor force in German politics.

How did the Nazis do it?

The impact of the Depression can only partlyexplain the success of the Nazis. All partiesclaimed they had solutions. Why was it theNazis and not the other parties whomanaged to convince Germans they couldsolve the country’s problems?

OrganizationThey were very well-organized. Many Nazishad been soldiers in the First World War.They brought to party work the sameobedience, organization and teamwork skillswhich they had needed in the trenches. Thelocal workers were well-trained andmotivated. They had skilled leaders at almostevery level.

PropagandaThis played a vital role in winning the Nazissupport. Both Hitler and the head of the Nazipropaganda campaign, Dr Joseph Goebbels,were masters in its use. They also trainedtheir local groups in propaganda skills. TheNazis used every trick in the book to get theirmessage home. They knew that their anti-Communist stance was very popular so theirpropaganda further whipped up fear of theCommunists. They stirred up violence atelection meetings so that the SA could crushit and be seen ‘dealing with the Communistthreat’. Hitler pointed to the Nazis’ ten-yeartrack record of fighting against Communism.

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Support of the industrialistsOne of their aims — which was partlysuccessful — was to earn the support of thepowerful industrialists. Traditionally they hadvoted for the People’s Party (DVP), which lostmuch of its support after 1930. In 1931,Hitler made a deal with the other mainright-wing party, the National Party, by whichthe two parties agreed to co-operate. TheNazi Party also received some financialbacking from big business.

Use of technologyWith this money, the Nazis redoubled theirpropaganda. Radio was used for the firsttime. In the 1932 presidential election, whileHindenburg gave just one election speech,Goebbels chartered planes to fly Hitler allover Germany in order to speak to four orfive massive rallies per day. Rallies, radiobroadcasts, millions of election posters andparades carried the Nazi message into everytown and home in Germany.

Promises to votersAnd every sector of German society seemedto hear something it wanted to hear.

Workers were promised jobs (Hitler couldpoint to how the Nazis’ SA had taken in theunemployed and fed and housed them).Employers were promised restored profits;farmers higher prices; shopkeepersprotection against competition. There wassomething for everybody.

FlexibilityIn fact, one reason for the Nazis’ success wasthat they were flexible. If they found an ideawas losing them support they would changeit. In one election speech a leading Nazispoke powerfully for the nationalization ofindustry (which had always been one of theNazis’ beliefs). When they found out howalarmed the industrialists were they quicklydropped the idea. In their campaigns it wasnever mentioned again. In their all-out pushfor electoral success they realised that itdoesn’t really matter what you promise aslong as people trust you. If all else failed the

Nazis simply went for vague promises: theywould ‘make Germany great again’. In theend, despite the extreme beliefs expressed inthe Nazis’ 25 Points — of which they madeno secret (see page 4) — Germans wereunsure as to what the Nazis really stood for.

Hitler the supermanOnly one thing really stayed consistentthroughout this barrage of electioneering:the unblinking focus on Hitler, the strongleader whom Germany needed and wanted.Posters and rallies built him up into asuperman. His physical appearance wasadapted (on posters at least). Hitler himselfdeveloped his speech-making skills stillfurther. He wore spectacles to read, butrefused to be seen wearing them in publicand so his speeches were typed in large —12mm high — print. It no longer seemed tomatter what he said, just how he said it.Hitler was the Nazis’ trump card. Thecampaigns focused around his personalityand his skills. The opposition had no one tomatch him.

Hitler speaking at a rally in 1930. SOURCE D

Weaknesses of oppositionOther parties were very weak and theyconsistently underestimated the Nazis. TheSocial Democrats feared they would attempta putsch, but they thought that the Nazis’electioneering was so absurd that ordinaryGermans would see through it. Their ownsupport was constant so they were not eagerto change. They quarrelled among them-selves rather than uniting to stop the Nazis.

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Political scheming, 1932–3

You have already investigated the strengthsand weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution(see page 2). In 1932 the weaknesses of theconstitution were clear to all. Because of itscareful balance of power and proportionalrepresentation, no political leader was strongenough to rule. During this period, Germanywas effectively being run by 84-year-oldPresident Hindenburg. He was a relic fromthe past. Decisions were being set by a tinygroup of rich, conservative industrialists andarmy leaders. The Reichstag offered verylittle leadership.

OverviewYou are going to study the events of 1932and 1933 in some detail, so it is important toget the overview first. At the heart of theproblem was the fact that the Nazis were thelargest party. Normally, the leader of such a

party would become Chancellor, but most ofthe other parties in the Reichstag refused towork with Hitler. The constitution gavePresident Hindenburg the right to appointthe Chancellor and he did not want Hitler asChancellor. “That man for Chancellor?”, heexclaimed. “I’ll make him a postmaster andhe can lick stamps with my head on them.”

So month after month there werearguments and back-room deals as differentpoliticians struggled to assemble a workablecoalition government. The weakness of theReichstag would have been a problem even ifthings had been going well in Germany. Butwhen faced with the chronic problems of theDepression it was disastrous.

As you study the twists and turns of1932–3, these are the main characters youwill meet.

President HindenburgFormer army leader. HatedHitler. He called him ‘the littleBohemian corporal’. His mainadvisers were conservative,rich industrialists and generals.

Franz von PapenRich Catholic nobleman. Afavourite of Hindenburg.Distrusted Hitler.

General von SchleicherFormer army leader. Themain adviser to PresidentHindenburg. Supported vonPapen to start with.Distrusted Hitler.

Reichstag elections: July 1932In the July 1932 elections the Nazis won 37%per cent of the vote (230 seats) — their bestresult ever. They were now by far the largest

party. Hitler demanded to be appointedChancellor.

Hindenburg despised Hitler, but he couldsee the value of trying to use the Nazis for his

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own ends. Hindenburg appointed his friendFranz von Papen as his Chancellor. VonPapen had no support in the Reichstag, buthe hoped he could create a right-wingcoalition government with the support of theNazis and other right-wing parties in theReichstag. Hitler was offered the Vice-Chancellorship, but he refused to co-operate,so Hindenburg called another election.

Reichstag elections: November 1932This was a bad election for the Nazis. Apathywas settling in. The thuggery and violentbehaviour of the SA had begun to lose theNazis support. Their vote fell to 33 per cent.They lost thirty-four seats. They were still thelargest party, but there was a real sense ofgloom among the Nazis. After years ofcontinuous campaigning they were runningshort of money. Goebbels wrote in his diary:‘the future looks dark and gloomy; allchances and hopes have quite disappeared’.

In fact, success was just around thecorner. Hitler’s help came from a surprisingsource. General von Schleicher stoppedsupporting von Papen and decided that hehimself should become Chancellor. Thistriggered off a power struggle between vonSchleicher and von Papen, which ended withthem handing power to Hitler. This is how ithappened:

19323 December: Hindenburg appointed von

Schleicher Chancellor.

19334 January: Von Papen could see that von

Schleicher was unable to winsufficient support in theReichstag. He saw his chanceto win back power and getrevenge. He privately agreed towork with Hitler. Hitler wouldbe Chancellor. Von Papenwould be Vice-Chancellor.

22 January: Von Papen asked Hindenburgto make Hitler Chancellor.Hindenburg refused.

28 January: Von Schleicher finally had toadmit defeat in raising supportin the Reichstag. He had toresign as Chancellor.

30 January: Hindenburg wanted von Papenback, but was advised thatreappointing such anunpopular Chancellor mighttrigger a movement againstHindenburg himself. Von Papen persuadedHindenburg that as long as thenumber of Nazis in the Cabinetwas limited, then even withHitler as Chancellor they couldstill control him. He alsowarned that the alternative wasanother Nazi putsch which thearmy would be unable to stop. Hindenburg appointed Hitleras Chancellor and von Papenas Vice-Chancellor.

On the day of his appointment, on SOURCE E 30 January 1933, Hitler deferentially pays hisrespects to President Hindenburg.

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How did the Nazis consolidate their power during1933–4?

How strong was Hitler’s position inJanuary 1933?

On 30 January 1933, the Nazis celebratedHitler’s appointment as Chancellor withtorchlit parades through the streets of Berlin.

It seemed that the Nazis had achievedtheir ambitions. However, Hitler knew thathis hold on power was fragile. He could besacked by Hindenburg at any time. Apartfrom Hitler, only two other Nazis had beengiven positions in the new government.Moreover, support for the Nazis had fallenfrom 37% to 33% during 1932. To controlthe Reichstag, Hitler needed 51% of the vote.Finally, Hindenburg and von Papen plannedto use Hitler like a puppet. Von Papenboasted to a friend, ‘We’ve hired him’, but hewas fatally wrong.

Within eighteen months of being appointedChancellor, Hitler had turned himself into aDICTATOR. He eliminated all of his politicalopponents and turned Germany into aTOTALITARIAN state. How did Hitler do this?

Key words

Dictator — a ruler who has sole andtotal power because they are notrestricted by a constitution, laws or anyopposition.

Totalitarian — a one-party form ofgovernment requiring complete obedienceto the State.

Once he was installed as Chancellor, Hitlerinsisted on new Reichstag elections. Theywere called for 5 March. He was determinedto win an absolute majority for the Nazis, andas Chancellor he was now in a position touse all the powers of the State against hisopponents.

On 4 February, Hitler got PresidentHindenburg to pass a decree supposedly toensure free and peaceful elections. Allelection meetings had to be notified to thepolice at least forty-eight hours in advance.In theory, this was to ensure that meetingscould be adequately policed. In fact, itallowed Nazi-controlled policemen to comeand break up the meetings themselves.

The decree gave the police the authorityto prohibit any election meeting where adanger to public security was feared. Itordered that the police were to be given aprominent place at every meeting.

These powers were particularly useful inthe important state of Prussia, where theNazi, Hermann Goering, was Minister of theInterior and controlled the police.

On 17 February Goering told his policeforce that Nazi meetings were not to behindered by police restrictions, but that thoseof Communists must be dealt with severely.

An American cartoon from early SOURCE A 1933 with the caption: ‘Not the mostcomfortable seat.’

16

HOW DID THE NAZIS CONSOLIDATE THEIR POWER DURING 1933–4?

A British cartoon from Punch SOURCE D magazine, 8 March 1933.

He promised his officers: ‘I shall cover forpolice officers who use firearms in thedischarge of their duties, regardless of theconsequences of the use of firearms.’

On 22 February, Goering appointedmembers of the Nazis’ own SA as auxiliarypolice officers, giving them the same powersas the official police force. They disruptedopposition meetings and beat up opponents.

What was the significance of theReichstag fire?

On the night of 27 February came thesensational news that the Reichstag buildinghad been set on fire. Inside the burningbuilding, the police found a young DutchCommunist, Marinus van der Lubbe, whowas arrested and charged with starting thefire. Hitler used this as evidence that theCommunists were plotting against hisgovernment. That night Goering’s Prussianpolice arrested and imprisoned 4,000Communists, including Reichstag deputies.

Shocked Berliners gaze at the still SOURCE B smouldering Reichstag building.

The next day, Hitler persuaded PresidentHindenburg to pass an emergency decreesuspending all the articles in the Weimarconstitution which guaranteed personalliberty, freedom of speech, freedom of thepress and freedom of assembly.

The ‘Decree for the Protection of thePeople and the State’ (or the ‘Reichstag FireDecree’) gave the police emergency powersto search houses, confiscate property and

detain people indefinitely without trial. Itdecreed the death penalty for a wide range ofcrimes. The police could close newspapers,ban meetings, round up political opponentsand drag them off to their hastily organizedconcentration camps and detention centres.

SA members arrest Communists SOURCE C in Berlin, March 1933.

This might have been an emergency decree,but it actually stayed in place for twelveyears, throughout the period of Nazi rule. Itbecame the legal excuse for the Nazis’twelve-year terror against their opponents inGermany.

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A Social Democrat MP recounts the passing of the Enabling Act SOURCE E

ŸThe wide square in front of the Kroll Opera House was crowded with dark masses ofpeople. We were received with wild choruses: ‘We want an Enabling Act!’ Youths withswastikas on their chests eyed us insolently, blocked our way, in fact made us run thegauntlet, calling us names like ‘Centre [Catholic Party] pig’, ‘Marxist sow’. The OperaHouse was crawling with armed SA and SS men. The assembly hall was decorated withswastikas. When we Social Democrats had taken our seats on the extreme left, grim-faced SA and SS men lined up at the exits and along the walls behind us in a semi-circle..

Hitler read out his government declaration in a surprisingly calm voice. Only in a fewplaces did he raise it to a fanatical frenzy: when he demanded the public execution of vander Lubbe, and when, at the end of his speech, he uttered dark threats of what wouldhappen if the Reichstag did not vote for the Enabling Act.

Otto Wels read out our reply. It was a masterpiece; a farewell to the fading era ofhuman rights and humanity. With his voice half-choking, he gave our good wishes to thepersecuted and oppressed in the country who, though innocent, were already filling theprisons and concentration camps simply on account of their political creed.

Hitler jumped up furiously and launched into a passionate reply. ‘You areover-sensitive, gentlemen, you talk of persecution already. You, gentlemen, are no longerneeded. I do not even want you to vote for the Enabling Act. Germany shall become free,but not through you!’

We tried to dam the flood of Hitler’s accusations with interruptions of ‘No!’, ‘An error!’,‘False!’ But that did us no good. The SA and the SS people hissed loudly and murmured,‘Shut up! ‘Traitors! ‘You’ll be strung up today!’

In the short-term, however, the fire seemedlike a gift to the Nazis. It provided them withjust the excuse they needed to tighten thescrew on the opposition. It meant only theNazis were able to campaign for theforthcoming election. A flood of propagandawas unleashed, urging Germans to vote forthem and save the nation from Communism.On election day itself, each polling stationwas policed by a mass of uniformed Naziswho watched each ballot being marked.

Why was the Enabling Act soimportant?

The March 1933 electionIn the election on 5 March the Nazis got theirbest-ever result (44%), but they still failed towin an overall majority. What Hitler wantednow was an ‘Enabling Law’ which wouldplace all power in his hands, allow him topass laws without consulting the Reichstagor the President and effectively allow him to

establish a dictatorship. The National Partywere prepared to support him in this, buteven then Hitler would be well short of thetwo-thirds of Reichstag seats that he neededto pass a change to the Weimar constitution.How would he get the votes he needed?

Ban the CommunistsThe first step was to ban the Communistsfrom serving in the Reichstag. That wasrelatively simple using his emergencypowers. However, he still needed to convincethe members of the other parties.

Intimidate the Social DemocratsThe newly elected Reichstag members metfor the first time in the Kroll Opera House inBerlin on 23 March (see Source E).Despite this pressure many SocialDemocrats still voted against the EnablingAct — but to no effect. All the other partiesgave in to Nazi pressure. The Enabling Actwas passed by 441 votes to 94.

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Hitler speaking to the Reichstag in SOURCE F the Kroll Opera House regarding the EnablingAct, 23 March 1933.

The Enabling ActThe Act gave Hitler the power to make lawswithout the approval of either the Reichstagor the President. The Reichstag had in effectvoted itself out of existence. It had voted tointroduce a Nazi dictatorship. During thenext twelve years of Nazi rule, the Reichstagmet occasionally — but simply to listen toHitler speaking. They never held a debate.They had no say on policies. The WeimarRepublic was over.

The Enabling Act became the foundationstone of the Third Reich (1933–45). It alsotriggered a six-month period of rapid changethroughout Germany which is known as theNazi revolution. In a series of decrees, Hitlerbegan to eliminate his opponents andestablish a one-party state.

Date Use of the Enabling Act

April 1933 A law removed Jews and politicalopponents of the Nazis from theirposts in the civil service.

May 1933 A law banned trade unions andmade strikes illegal.

July 1933 A law banned all political partiesexcept the Nazi Party.

October 1933 A law introduced strict controls onthe press. Journalists and editorsnow had their newspapers andbooks censored.

The Night of the Long Knives

By mid-1934 a power struggle had begun inthe Nazi leadership. It was clear that Hitlerhad to choose between the SA and the army.

The SAThroughout the rise of the Nazis, Hitler reliedon the SA to put his policies into action.They had fought loyally for Hitler against theCommunists and had helped him come topower. By 1934 the SA was an enormousorganization with over two million members.It was also very powerful. In fact, its leaderErnst Röhm was a potential rival to Hitler.

Röhm wanted Hitler to continue the Nazirevolution by reducing the power of bigbusiness and carrying out the anti-capitalistparts of the Nazi programme — such astaking over major industries. Röhm alsowanted the SA to take control of the army.

The armyThe army was much smaller than the SA —it had only 100,000 soldiers. The army’sgenerals were supported by big business.They wanted Hitler to expand the army andto buy new weapons. The army was totallyopposed to being taken over by the SA andwas very suspicious of Röhm.

Hitler had always known how importantthe army was in gaining effective control ofGermany. The opposition of the army hadbeen his main problem in 1923 when theMunich Putsch failed (see page 6). Soon afterhe became Chancellor, on 3 February1933, Hitler went to the army leaders toexplain his aims. He told them he intendedto rearm Germany and to take overLebensraum in eastern Europe. He also toldthem that his plans would involve defeatingFrance in a war.

While many generals welcomed suchplans, others remained suspicious of Hitler.

Many of the generals were fromupper-class families and rather looked downon Hitler. On the other hand they agreedwith Hitler’s nationalist aims and his beliefthat the army needed to be much larger.

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On 29 June 1934 Hitler acted. He called a meetingof SA leaders for the following day at Wiessee inBavaria. Source G tells you what happened on 30June, which has become known as ‘The Night of theLong Knives.’

Written after the war by Hitler’s SOURCE G chauffeur, Eric Kempka

ŸJust before Wiessee, Hitler suddenly broke hissilence: ‘Kempka,’ he said, ‘drive carefully whenwe come to the Hotel Hanselbauer. You mustdrive up without making any noise. If you see anSA guard at the front of the hotel, don’t wait forthem to report to me; drive on and stop at thehotel entrance.’ Then, after a moment of deathlysilence: ‘Röhm wants to carry out a coup.’

An icy shiver ran down my back. I could havebelieved anything, but not a coup by Röhm!

I drove up carefully to the hotel entrance asHitler had ordered. Hitler jumped out of the car,and after him Goebbels, Lutze and the adjutants.Just behind us another car stopped with a squadof detectives which had been raised in Munich.

As soon as I had turned the car so that it wasready to leave in a moment, I rushed into thehotel with my gun at the ready … I ran quicklyup the stairs to the first floor where Hitler wasjust coming out of Röhm’s bedroom.

A few seconds later, Röhm came out of hisroom in a blue suit and with a cigar in the cornerof his mouth. Hitler glared at him, but saidnothing. Two detectives took Röhm to the hotellobby where he threw himself into an armchairand ordered coffee from the waiter.

I stayed in the corridor a little to one side anda detective told me about Röhm’s arrest.

Hitler entered Röhm’s bedroom alone with awhip in his hand. Behind him were twodetectives with pistols at the ready. He spat outthe words: ‘Röhm, you are under arrest.’ Röhmlooked up sleepily and said: ‘Heil, my Führer.’

‘You are under arrest,’ bawled Hitler for thesecond time. He turned and left the room.

Over the weekend Röhm and around 200other SA leaders were executed. These alsoincluded other opponents of Hitler who were notpart of the SA, for example the former Chancellorvon Schleicher.

Hitler had now tamed the SA andthereby won the support of the army.Another consequence was that theSS became independent of the SA.Finally, the Night of the Long Knivesshowed that Hitler had gained theacceptance of the legalized murderof his opponents. This intimidatedfuture opponents and made Hitlereven more confident.

Hitler becomes Führer

Only President Hindenburg could stilllegally remove Hitler from power. On2 August 1934, just weeks after theNight of the Long Knives, the 87-year-old President died. Withinhours, Hitler had declared himselfPresident. He was now not onlyChancellor, but Head of State andCommander of the Army too. Hitlergave himself the new title of Führer(meaning ‘leader’).

Every soldier swore an oath ofpersonal loyalty to Hitler. TheGerman army had a tradition ofdiscipline and obedience, so soldierstook this oath seriously. To break itwould be the most terrible crime.

The oath of loyalty SOURCE H

ŸI swear by God this sacredoath: that I will give completeobedience to the Führer of theGerman Reich and people, AdolfHitler, the Supreme Commanderof the Armed Forces and will beready as a brave soldier to riskmy life at any time for this oath.

Hitler was now a dictator. To makehis seizure of power appear legal, heasked the German people to vote onhis actions in a referendum. Nazipropaganda ensured that there was a90 per cent vote in his favour.

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