© T. M. Whitmore TODAY Origins of agriculture & some consequences Questions about last time? ...
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Transcript of © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Origins of agriculture & some consequences Questions about last time? ...
© T. M. Whitmore
TODAY •Origins of agriculture & some
consequences
•Questions about last time?Domestication?
Properties of cultivated plants?
© T. M. Whitmore
Origins of agriculture Why - How - Where?
• Many theories (not all noted here)
• No absolute agreement
• Some address the “why” of agriculture
• Most seek to explain the “where”
• Also the “how” of agriculture
• Not “progress” per se – some negative consequences
© T. M. Whitmore
Origins of agriculture• Most of human history we have been
foragers (hunter-gathers)
• Paradox of domestication/agricultureWhy leave hunting-gathering ?First Nutrition transition:
Domestication/agriculture => less variety in diet and less healthy people
Domestication/agriculture done where wild plants (e.g., wild relatives of wheat and barley) are very abundant – so why bother?
H-G often entails less work
© T. M. Whitmore
Composite theory to explain the origin of agriculture in
Mesopotamia• Ag arose in part as a consequence of
climate change Climate change => increased
seasonality• Need to have a diversity of domesticatable
wild plants• Humans altered gathered plants
• Process may have been more-or-less unconscious (dump heap theory)
• Population growth leads to population levels above the carrying capacity around margins of optimum habitats
© T. M. Whitmore
Semi-Dissenters• Sauer
Agriculture did not originate from a lack of food
Inventors of agriculture had previously acquired special skills in other directions: predisposition to agricultural experiments
Agriculture began in wooded areas: easier to clear than grasslands
• Harlan Although agriculture started more or less
simultaneously (8,000-6,000 BC) in several parts of the world, circumstances were probably quite different.
Therefore, a single model will not be satisfactory.
© T. M. Whitmore
Proposed sequence of change
• “Broad Spectrum” revolution (change in H-G patterns)20,000 BP and later
• “Neolithic” Revolution (advent of agriculture and later, herding)12,000 BP and later
• Urban Revolution (rise of civilization)~ 6,000 BP and later
© T. M. Whitmore
Consequences I: 1st Nutrition Transition
(Foragers => Agriculturalists)(Paleolithic to Neolithic)
• H-G/forager health & nutrition Small bands low density => few
infectious diseasesVarious parasites, lice, and
some zoonoses (trichinosis, tetanus, schistosomiasis etc.)
Good nutrition, variety of foods, few deficiencies
© T. M. Whitmore
1st Nutrition Transition • Early agriculturalists
Nutritional status likely lower than for foragers Lean years and hunger seasons Theft Storage problems
Domesticated varieties may be less nutritious than wild relatives
Diet is more centered on cereals => less variety
Agriculture => loss of fertility in fields (with no amendments) and possible plant diseases => greater risks again
© T. M. Whitmore
Consequences II: Health• Early agriculturalists: increased health
risks over foragers Increased “herd type” infectious diseases
Malaria, mumps, measles, smallpox etc.
Increases in zoonoses and parasites from animals: anthrax, TB etc. salmonella or tape worms
Increases in diseases associated with waste & contaminated water (fecal-oral diseases): cholera, typhus, plague
Insect borne diseases (e.g., malaria)Increased infections => higher
malnutrition especially for weanlings
© T. M. Whitmore
Consequences III: Sedentary living• Neolithic/Agricultural revolution involves
sedentary settlement - a major change =>Annual harvests => food storageStorage losses and health risks due to
various forms of rot in storage (e.g., ergot)
Stored foods can be stolen (see McNeil’s classic Plagues and Peoples)
© T. M. Whitmore
Urban/sedentary revolution • Trade networks associated with cities can
improve food variety and seasonal availability (but trade is often controlled => development of elite and poor classes)
• “Civilization” is defined by urban specialists (i.e., non-farmers) – don’t grow own foodThus, ability to eat dependent on
exchange rather than production ability => possibly vulnerability to “social famine”
(even if crops are abundant)
© T. M. Whitmore
Consequences IV: Population Consequences
• Population growth (conventional, “hockey stick,” view)Paleolithic = .0015%/yr for thousands of
years100,000 – 12,000 BP perhaps 3 m
humans total8 m humans by 10,000 BP (eve of ag)By 5,000 BP (~ 5,000 yrs of ag) = 100
m!
© T. M. Whitmore
Deevey’s 3 “Revolutions”
• A re-interpretation of the “hockey stick growth curve to highlight 3 “revolutions”Paleolithic: tool making revolutionNeolithic: agriculture & urbanism
revolutionIndustrial: industrial revolution
© T. M. Whitmore
Deevey’s reinterpretation• Low growth after gains of initial paleolithic
“surge” and neolithic surges
• Paleolithic revolution Both death and birth rates increased, but
births more Increase in population and density
• Neolithic Revolution• Birth and death rates increase ( births more)
Greatest potential for disease and death in very old and very young
Reproducing age folks more likely to survive all these problem
© T. M. Whitmore
Origins of agriculture – where?• Vavilov (1927):
Centers of genetic diversity in wild plants (precursors of domesticates) => center of domestication
He posits 8 major centers of domestication that => centers for early ag Some dissent now but still generally
accepted
© T. M. Whitmore
SW Asia & E Mediterranean (IV on map) aka “fertile crescent”)
• Zagros mtns., SW Turkey, and E. Mediterranean hills
• First good evidence of domestication of cereals (many wild grasses) (8,000-12,000 BP) Wheat; barleylater flax for oil, peas, lentils
• By 6000 BP classic Mediterranean crops: olive, grapes, figs
• Early animal domestication (6000 BP): Sheep , goats, cattle, pigs
© T. M. Whitmore
Fertile Crescent II• Move to flood plains of Iraq (Tigris &
Euphrates rivers) and Nile by 7000-6000 BP => Rise of great Mesopotamian and
Egyptian civilizations
• Lowlands of Mesopotamia and Nile lack sufficient rain for agriculture => By 5000 BP new (2nd) type of agriculture
(irrigation-based)
• Also key is adoption of ox-drawn plow (very simple “ards”) by 6000 BP
© T. M. Whitmore
Fertile Crescent Crops/foods I• Grains: wheat, barley, rye, and oats• Fruits & nuts: grape, olive, fig, date palm,
pomegranates, apricot, walnut, pistachios• Pulses: peas, lentils, chick peas (poor folks'
meat)• Root & tuber crops: turnips, beets, carrots,
radishs• Condiments/vegetables: onions, garlic,
leeks, cucumbers, lettuce, saffron, parsley,• Oil crops: rape seed, safflower, flax, olive• Stimulants: poppy, digitalis, belladonna,
licorice
© T. M. Whitmore
Fertile Crescent Crops/foods II• Meat:
Probably mostly small stock (goats, sheep, pigs)
Cows too valuable to slaughterCattle used for milk and traction before
for meat
© T. M. Whitmore
Food storage and preparation• Brewing by 5500 BP!
• Wine making (grapes, dates)
• Milling of wheat and barley for cereal foods (porridge) and bread
• Baking
© T. M. Whitmore
Diffusion of SW Asia Ag & domesticates
• Diffusion of crops, animals, & techniques
• West thru Mediterranean basin: Spain & N Africa by 6000 BP
• North to Europe via Danube valleyTo N Sea (and Britain?) by 6000 BP
• East to South AsiaBy 5000 BP to Indus R valley (Harappa &
Mohenjodaro civilizations)To Ganges V by 3000 BP
• East to N China plain by 7000 BP
© T. M. Whitmore
South East Asia & India (IIa & IIb on map)
• “Vegeculture” (vs seed agriculture) Before seed ag in SE AsiaTiming unclear (before 12,000 BP?)Simple digging stick methods
• Important non-seed propagated crops:Taro, breadfruit, sago palm, bamboo,
coconut, bananas, & some yams• Also chickens and pigs (independently)
© T. M. Whitmore
South East Asia continued• Seed-based agriculture
Asian rice by 5000 BP in Thailand or elsewhere in SE Asia Upland (dry, rain-fed) rice initially Wet (paddy) rice
–Elaborate landscape modifications Spread E to India & N to S China
© T. M. Whitmore
India & South Asia continued• Grains: rice
• Pulses: chickpea (?), mung bean, pigeon pea
• Roots & tubers: radish, taro, some yams
• Oil crops: safflower, sesame (?),
• Fruits & nuts: mango, orange, tangerine
• Vegetables: eggplant, cucumber
• Misc & spices: sugar cane, coconut palm, black pepper, indigo, cinnamon
• Fiber: various cottons
© T. M. Whitmore
China & Central Asia(regions I & III on map)
• Cereals: millets; sorghum; buckwheat• Pulses: soybean, adzuki bean, velvet bean• Roots & tubers: turnip, Chinese yams• Oil crops: rape seed• Fruits & nuts: pear, chestnut, quince;
persimmon, litchi, apricot, peach, walnut (?)
• Vegetables & spices: Chinese cabbage, ginger, onions
• Stimulants etc.: tea, ginseng,
© T. M. Whitmore
Africa (VI on the map)
• Agricultural origins: after 9000 BP (more likely 5000-6000
BP)regions & crops uncertain (Ethiopia &
Sahael), general diffusion west
© T. M. Whitmore
African Domesticates• Cereals: African rice, pearl millet, sorghum,
tef• Pulses: cowpea, groundnuts• Roots & tubers: African (true) yam• Oil crops: oil palm, castor bean• Fruits & nuts: baobab, watermelon, melon• Vegetables & spices: okra• Stimulants: coffee• Animals: Common ass & guinea fowl
Near Eastern Crops
6. Olive7. Barley8. Walnut9. Almond10. Pistachio nuts
11. Apricot12. Date13. Wheat14. Fig15. Fava beans
1. Lentil2. Chickpea3. Salt4. Peas5. Raisins
History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University
© T. M. Whitmore
ANIMAL SOURCES OF SOME HUMAN DISEASES
DISEASEBacterial
BrucellosisPasteurellosisTularemiaAnthraxListerosisTuberculosisQ Fever
ParasiticTrichinosisCoccidiosis
ViralInfluenzaFoot and MouthRabies
COMMON SOURCE
goats, cattlefowlsheep, rabbitscattle, sheep, goats, horsesguinea pigs, fowlcattlecattle, sheep, goats
swinecats
swine, horsescattle, sheep, goatsdogs, cats