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Constitutional Law Exam Summary

Contents TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION; PERSPECTIVES ON THE CONSTITUTION ........................................................................ 7

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

KELSEN’S PYRAMID ................................................................................................................................................. 7

HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA’S CONSTITUTION ............................................................................................................... 7

COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENT – BACKGROUND: AN INFLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION ..................................................... 7

AMENDMENT (REFERENDUM) ................................................................................................................................ 8

TYPES OF LEGISLATIVE POWER ................................................................................................................................ 8

TOPIC TWO: CONSTITUTIONAL CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................. 9

FEDERALISM............................................................................................................................................................ 9

POWER SHARING BETWEEN STATES AND COMMONWEALTH .................................................................................. 9

LIMITATIONS ON CWTH POWER TO REGULATE MATTERS WITHIN STATES........................................................... 9

STATE POWERS REQUIRING COMMONWEALTH CONSENT................................................................................... 9

STATE POWERS TO CONSENT OR WITHHOLD THEIR CONSENT TO CWTH ........................................................... 10

TERRITORIAL LIMITS ON LEGISLATIVE POWER ................................................................................................... 10

AUSTRALIA ACT 1986 ........................................................................................................................................ 10

CROWN ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

EXECUTIVE POWERS AND PREROGATIVE POWERS................................................................................................. 11

PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY V CONSTITUTIONAL SUPREMACY ........................................................................ 11

RESPONSIBLE AND REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT ............................................................................................. 11

EXTRATERRITORIALITY/SOVEREIGNTY ................................................................................................................... 12

SEPARATION OF POWERS ...................................................................................................................................... 13

THE POLITICAL THEORY OF A SEPARATION OF POWERS ..................................................................................... 13

TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE SEPARATION OF POWERS REFLECTED IN OUR CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEMS OF

GOVERNMENT? ................................................................................................................................................. 13

LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE POWERS – THE COMMONWEALTH ...................................................................... 14

JUDICIAL AND NON-JUDICIAL POWER – DEFINING JUDICIAL POWER.................................................................. 14

TOPIC THREE: THE HIGH COURT, JUDICIAL REVIEW AND THE EXECUTIVE ................................................................ 15

COMPOSITION AND POWERS OF THE HIGH COURT ............................................................................................... 15

JUDICIAL REVIEW .................................................................................................................................................. 15

COMMONWEALTH EXECUTIVE .............................................................................................................................. 15

ORGANS OF THE EXECUTIVE .............................................................................................................................. 15

THE SCOPE OF THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF THE COMMONWEALTH ................................................................... 16

COMMONWEALTH’S SPENDING POWER – NATURE AND SCOPE ........................................................................ 16

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PREROGATIVE POWERS ..................................................................................................................................... 20

GOVERNOR GENERALS POWER, IN PARTICULAR, RESERVE POWERS .................................................................. 20

TOPIC FOUR: STRUCTURES AND PROCEDURES OF PARLIAMENT .............................................................................. 21

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENT ........................................................... 21

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEATS ............................................................................................................................. 21

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................................ 21

ELECTORAL DIVISIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 21

COMMONWEALTH ELECTORAL ACT 1918 (CTH) ................................................................................................ 21

THE STRUCTURES .................................................................................................................................................. 22

FEDERAL MOVEMENT........................................................................................................................................ 22

COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION - PARLIAMENT ............................................................................................ 22

CROWN ............................................................................................................................................................. 22

SENATE ............................................................................................................................................................. 22

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................................ 23

DURATION OF PARLIAMENT .................................................................................................................................. 23

COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION - PARLIAMENT ............................................................................................ 23

ADJOURNMENT, PROROGATION AND DISSOLUTION ............................................................................................. 23

MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT: QUALIFICATIONS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS .............................................................. 23

COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION – PARLIAMENT ........................................................................................... 23

FRANCHISE ............................................................................................................................................................ 24

THE RIGHT TO VOTE .......................................................................................................................................... 24

COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION – VOTING ................................................................................................... 24

STANDARD LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................... 24

THE LEGISLATION .............................................................................................................................................. 24

THE STANDING ORDERS .................................................................................................................................... 25

JUSTICIABILITY OF THE STANDING ORDERS. ....................................................................................................... 25

ROYAL ASSENT .................................................................................................................................................. 25

RESERVATION.................................................................................................................................................... 25

DISALLOWANCE ................................................................................................................................................ 25

SPECIAL PROCEDURES (FINANCIAL LEGISLATION) .................................................................................................. 26

COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENT ....................................................................................................................... 26

THE SENATE’S DEFERRAL OF SUPPLY: 1975 ........................................................................................................ 26

JUSTICIABILITY OF VIOLATIONS OF SS 53, 54 AND 56 ......................................................................................... 26

MEANING OF ‘ORDINARY ANNUAL SERVICES OF THE GOVERNMENT’ IN SS 53 AND 54. ..................................... 27

TOPIC FIVE: TAXATION AND GRANTS POWERS ........................................................................................................ 28

TAXATION POWERS FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................................... 28

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THE CONCEPT OF A TAX ........................................................................................................................................ 28

THE FORM-SUBSTANCE DISTINCTION ................................................................................................................ 28

PROCEDURAL ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................. 28

EXPRESS PROHIBITIONS ON COMMONWEALTH DISCRIMINATION AGAINST THE STATES ....................................... 28

GOVERNMENT FINANCE .................................................................................................................................... 28

FISCAL POWERS ................................................................................................................................................. 28

COMMONWEALTH CONSTITUTION SS 51, 99 ........................................................................................................ 29

RESTRICTIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 29

LOCATION ......................................................................................................................................................... 30

NO DISCRIMINATION AND NO PREFERENCE IN TAXATION ................................................................................. 30

THE MEANING OF DISCRIMINATION AND PREFERENCE ..................................................................................... 30

PREFERENCE...................................................................................................................................................... 32

BETWEEN STATES .............................................................................................................................................. 32

THE COMMONWEALTH’S GRANTS POWER – THE SCOPE OF S 96 ....................................................................... 34

THE ISOLATION OF S 96 FROM SS 99 AND 51(II)................................................................................................. 34

S 96 AND THE FEDERAL SCHEME OF GOVERNMENT .......................................................................................... 34

TOPIC SIX: DUTIES OF EXCISE.................................................................................................................................... 35

EXCLUSIVE POWER OF EXCISE ............................................................................................................................... 35

THE MEANING OF EXCISE DUTIES .......................................................................................................................... 35

FEE FOR SERVICES OR EXCISE DUTIES? .................................................................................................................. 35

LICENSE FEES OR EXCISE DUTIES? .......................................................................................................................... 35

EXCISE DUTIES ON IMPORTED GOODS OR LICENCE FEES? ...................................................................................... 35

EXCISE DUTIES AND TERRITORIES .......................................................................................................................... 35

TOPIC SEVEN: TRADE AND COMMERCE POWER ....................................................................................................... 36

RELEVANT RULES .................................................................................................................................................. 36

COMMONWEALTH POWER OVER SELECTED COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES ................................................................. 36

SCOPE OF S 51(I): RESERVED POWERS APPROACH ................................................................................................. 36

S 51(XX) AND STRICKLAND .................................................................................................................................... 37

‘TRADE AND COMMERCE’ (MEANING) .................................................................................................................. 37

TRADE AND COMMERCE POWERS INCLUDE POWERS TO REGULATE ANCILLARY OR INCIDENTAL MATTERS .......... 37

AIRLINE SERVICES .................................................................................................................................................. 38

FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 38

INTERSTATE TRADE S 92 ........................................................................................................................................ 38

INTRASTATE (leaving) TRADE AND COMMERCE V INTERSTATE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND COMMERCE ..... 38

VERTICAL INTEGRATION AND HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION ................................................................................ 38

FREEDOM OF INTERSTATE TRADE ......................................................................................................................... 39

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TOPIC EIGHT: CORPORATIONS POWER..................................................................................................................... 41

THE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION ........................................................................................................................ 41

CASES RELATING TO S 51(XX) ................................................................................................................................ 41

EXTENT OF POWER TO REGULATE CORPORATE ACTIVITIES UNDER S 51(XX) .......................................................... 41

IS A LOCAL COUNCIL A “TRADING CORPORATION” UNDER S 51(XX)? ..................................................................... 41

IS A FOOTBALL LEAGUE AND FOOTBALL CLUB A “TRADING CORPORATION” UNDER S 51(XX)? .............................. 42

FURTHER CLARIFICATION – TRADING ACTIVITIES CAN BE INCIDENTAL TO PRIMARY PURPOSE ............................... 42

CORPORATIONS POWER – REGULATION OF NATURAL PERSONS ........................................................................... 42

THE APPROACH ..................................................................................................................................................... 43

TOPIC NINE: EXTERNAL AFFAIRS POWERS ................................................................................................................ 45

THE POWER .......................................................................................................................................................... 45

RELATIONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES .................................................................................................................... 45

MATTERS GEOGRAPHICALLY EXTERNAL TO AUSTRALIA ......................................................................................... 46

IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS AND ‘INTERNATIONAL CONCERN’ ....................................... 47

STEPS INVOLVED IN EXECUTIVE TREATY-MAKING ................................................................................................ 49

ACCOMMODATING INTERESTS OF STATES IN TREATY IMPLEMENTATION ........................................................... 50

IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS ........................................................................................ 50

NO SHAM TREATY RULE ........................................................................................................................................ 51

EXPANSIVE READING OF CTH POWER .................................................................................................................... 52

OBLIGATION AND INTERNATIONAL CONCERN DEFN .............................................................................................. 52

FEDERAL CONCERNS ............................................................................................................................................. 52

BONA FIDES .......................................................................................................................................................... 53

THE CONFORMITY TEST ......................................................................................................................................... 53

MATTERS OF INTERNATIONAL CONCERN ............................................................................................................. 54

TOPIC TEN: INCONSISTENCY OF LAWS ...................................................................................................................... 55

SECTION 109 ......................................................................................................................................................... 55

PRELIMINARY ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................ 55

TYPES OF S 109 INCONSISTENCY............................................................................................................................ 55

DIRECT INCONSISTENCY ........................................................................................................................................ 55

IMPOSSIBILITY OF SIMULTANEOUS OBEDIENCE OF BOTH LAWS ............................................................................ 55

MODIFICATION OF RIGHTS INCONSISTENCY .......................................................................................................... 55

STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES – S 109 ...................................................................................................................... 56

INDIRECT INCONSISTENCIES .................................................................................................................................. 56

COVER THE FIELD INCONSISTENCY ........................................................................................................................ 57

MANUFACTURING INCONSISTENCY (part of cover the field) .................................................................................. 57

OPERATIONAL INCONSISTENCY ............................................................................................................................. 59

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TOPIC ELEVEN: INTERGOVERNMENTAL IMMUNITIES ............................................................................................... 60

INTRO ................................................................................................................................................................... 60

FOUNDATION OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL IMMUNITIES ......................................................................................... 60

THE RESERVED POWERS DOCTRINE ....................................................................................................................... 61

EROSION OF THE TWO DOCTRINES........................................................................................................................ 61

COMMONWEALTH LAWS AND STATE GOVERNMENTS .......................................................................................... 61

S 114 THE CONSTITUTION ..................................................................................................................................... 63

STATE LAWS AND THE COMMONWEALTH ............................................................................................................. 64

PIRRIE V MACFARLANE (1925) ............................................................................................................................... 64

WEST V COMMISSIONER OF TAXATION (NSW) (1937) ........................................................................................... 64

RE RICHARD FOREMAN (1947) .............................................................................................................................. 65

ESSENDON CORP V CRITERION THEATRES (1947) .................................................................................................. 65

COMMONWEALTH V CIGMATIC (1962) ................................................................................................................. 66

RESIDENTIAL TENANCIES TRIBUNAL NSW AND HENDERSON (1997) ...................................................................... 67

CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................................ 67

TOPIC TWELVE: THE IMPLIED FREEDOM OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................. 68

AUSTRALIAN RELUCTANCE ABOUT RIGHTS ............................................................................................................ 68

CONTROVERSY ABOUT THE COURT’S DEVELOPMENT OF IMPLIED RIGHTS............................................................. 68

RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS AND THE STATES............................................................................................................. 68

ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY .................................................................................................................................. 68

S 51(XXXI) – ROLE AND RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER COMMONWEALTH POWERS ..................................................... 68

WHAT CONSTITUTES ‘PROPERTY’? ........................................................................................................................ 69

ACQUISITION WHERE PROPERTY INTEREST TAKEN BY OTHERS .............................................................................. 69

ACQUISITION VS REGULATION OF PROPERTY ........................................................................................................ 69

RESOLVING OR ADJUSTING COMPETING CLAIMS .................................................................................................. 69

RIGHTS INHERENTLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO VARIATION ................................................................................................. 69

NO ACQUISITION WHERE JUST TERMS ARE INCONGRUENT ................................................................................... 69

JUST TERMS .......................................................................................................................................................... 69

TRIAL BY JURY ....................................................................................................................................................... 70

‘LAW OF THE COMMONWEALTH’ .......................................................................................................................... 70

‘TRIAL ON INDICTMENT’ ........................................................................................................................................ 70

THE ELEMENTS OF THE ‘OFFENCE’ TO BE TRIED BY JURY ....................................................................................... 70

JURY ...................................................................................................................................................................... 70

THE REQUIREMENTS OF A S 80 JURY TRIAL............................................................................................................ 70

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 70

IMPLIED RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS – THE NATURE OF IMPLIED RIGHTS ................................................................... 70

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THE ORIGIN OF THE IMPLIED FREEDOM OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION................................................................. 71

HIGH COURT’S UNANIMOUS ACCEPTANCE OF THE IMPLIED FREEDOM OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION.............. 72

FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT AND FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION ................................................................................ 75

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TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION; PERSPECTIVES ON THE CONSTITUTION

INTRODUCTION

Constitution is written and rigid

Three branches – executive (government), judicature, legislature (parliament)

Establishes fundamental structure of the state

Constitution is paramount to all other powers in the Australian legal system

KELSEN’S PYRAMID

International law > UK Law/Australian Constitution > statutory law > delegated legislation > customary law

HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA’S CONSTITUTION

Initially, Imperial Parliament at Westminster sole source of legislative authority.

Prior to creation of Commonwealth Parliament and establishment of federal system in 1901, each of the 6

Australian colonies had their own parliaments which were largely unchanged by the Commonwealth

Constitution. These state parliaments were set up by state legislation, pre-1901 colonial legislation, and

imperial statutes of the UK Parliament.

NSW first had a Legislative Council set up by Australian Constitutions Act (No 1) 1842 (UK) 5 & 6 Vict c 76.

This Act authorised the Governor of NSW, with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council to ‘make

laws for the peace, welfare and good government of the colony.’ 8 years later, similar Legislative Councils

were set up in Victoria, Van Diemen’s Land, SA and WA by the Australian Constitution Act 1850 (UK) 13 & 14

Vict c 59. This Act invited each Legislative Council to draft and pass its own Constitution Act.

Tasmania and SA did pass their own Constitution Acts under the limitations imposed by the 1850 Act.

However, the NSW and Victoria bills went further than the 1850 Act permitted and in 1855 further imperial

legislation was passed authorising the Queen to assent to the colonial bills passed. The 1855 legislation also

allowed the establishment of Queensland as a separate colony with a similar system of government to NSW.

Colonial legislation in NSW, Qld, SA, Tasmania and Victoria established bicameral legislatures with general

legislative powers. Members of the Legislative Councils (upper houses) were elected on a property franchise

in SA, Tasmania and Victoria; in NSW and Qld they were nominated for life by the respective Governors.

Members of the lower houses (the Legislative Assembly except in SA and Tasmania where they were the

House of Assembly) were elected on a less restricted property or educational franchise. NB at the time,

these were the most democratic systems in the British Empire.

By 1890, Western Australia also had its own legislature similar to that of Qld and NSW where positions in the

Legislative Council were filled by the Governor’s nominees. The Legislative Assembly was elected on a

property-based franchise.

COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENT – BACKGROUND: AN INFLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION

The power to legislate to change the Commonwealth Constitution is under s 128 and is subject to strict

procedural limits. Compliance with this procedure is essential. The Commonwealth Parliament is given

power to legislate on specific topics under ss 51, 52, 76 and 77 but principally s 51.

State parliaments are authorised to change their Constitution Acts under their general legislative power

which is confirmed by s 5 of the Colonial Laws Validity Act and by s2(2) of the Australia Act 1986. The state

parliaments can amend or repeal their Constitution Acts in the same way as any piece of legislation

(McCawley v R [1920] AC 691). The Commonwealth Parliament is very different having a series of narrowly

defined legislative powers, over specific topics.

Also, the Commonwealth Parliament cannot establish special or alternative legislative procedures as its

legislative procedures are defined by the Commonwealth Constitution (ss 1, 23, 40, 58) and these

procedures may only be altered if the Constitution is altered under s 128. However, under s 51(xxxviii) of the

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Constitution the Commonwealth Parliament may have the power to introduce restrictive legislative

procedures as this power was given a broad reading by the High Court in Port Macdonnell Professional

Fishermen’s Association Inc v South Australia (1989) 168 CLR 340. It provided the constitutional basis for the

offshore settlement of 1980, and the Australia Act 1986 (Cth) which gave more powers to the states.

The power conferred by s 51(xxxviii) is declared to be ‘subject to this Constitution’ so it seems unlikely that it

could be used to alter the Constitution even if the states were to request the Commonwealth parliament to

do so.

Section 128 of the Commonwealth Constitution is set out on p. 846.

The alteration procedure is a difficult one to negotiate. Only 8 referenda have been successful from 44. It is

arguable that there are some alterations that may not be possible under s 128 such as changing to a unitary

or republican government or the secession of one or more states from the Commonwealth.

In 1933, WA petitioned the House of Commons in the UK seeking enactment of legislation to allow the state

to withdraw from the Commonwealth. The legal opinion was that the UK Parliament could amend or repeal

the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 but said nothing about whether the Commonwealth

Parliament could effect this change itself through the s 128 procedure (though it is likely that no such power

exists).

However, several writers believe that s 128 is a paramount provision which authorises radical changes to the

Constitution.

AMENDMENT (REFERENDUM)

S 128

Absolute majority in House of Representatives – mote to:

Absolute majority in the Senate – move to:

4/6 states – move to

51% of voters

Governed by Referendum (Machinery Provisions) Act 1984 (Cth)

TYPES OF LEGISLATIVE POWER

concurrent powers – legislative powers shared between the Cth and the States. The powers in s 51 are said

to be concurrent (to the extent that they are not expressly or impliedly made exclusive to the Cth) and

therefore both Cth and States can make laws on these matters.

exclusive powers – Cth only power (s 52 – to regulate the Cth public service, the seat of government of the

Cth and Cth public places; s 90 – to levy customs and excise duties; s 114 to regulate defence and s 51 (xii)

currency, coinage and legal tender.

o For all intents and purposes, Cth has exclusive power over s 51 (iv) Borrowing money on the public

credit of the Cth s 51 (xix) naturalisation and aliens s 51 (xxx) the relations of the Cth with the Pacific

s 51 (xxxi) acquisition of property on just terms s 51 (xxxvi) matters which this constitution makes

provision until the parliament otherwise provides s 51 (xxxix) matters incidental to the execution of

any power vested by this Constitution in the Parliament…or in the government of the Cth…or in the

Federal Judicature or any dept or officer of the Cth.

o Note state law can operate in a field left vacant by federal law. Also note Commonwealth law is

supreme over state law - Engineer’s Case (1920) concurrent powers do not operate automatically to

reserve any topics to the Commonwealth - Pirrie v McFarlane (1925)

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TOPIC TWO: CONSTITUTIONAL CONCEPTS

FEDERALISM

The constitutional scheme in Australia

Government exists on a federal level and state level. Both levels have different powers and responsibilities.

Legislative federalism – certain legislative powers are conferred upon the national parliament and others

upon the states

Executive federalism – executive power is divided between state and federal executives

Judicial federalism – federal jurisdictions (HC etc) and state (supreme, local, etc)

the constitutional structure of government in a federation. A federation is a political entity characterised by

a union of several autonomous states under a national ‘federal’ government upon terms set out in a written

constitution. Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act Preamble – ‘…the people of NSW, Vic, SA, Qld and

Tas…have agreed to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth’.

The Commonwealth government of Australia shares power with 6 states, formerly UK colonies, all with their

own constitutions.

Constitution Act 1889 (WA) Constitution Act 1902 (NSW), Constitution Act 1934 (SA), Constitution Act 1934

(Tas) The Constitution Act 1975 (Vic) and Constitution of Qld 2001, 3 territories - NT (Self Government Act

1978 (Cth) ACT (Self Government) Act 1988 (Cth) Norfolk Island Act 1979 (Cth).

Local governments have no constitutions but established under statutes of the states and territories and can

be abolished anytime.

POWER SHARING BETWEEN STATES AND COMMONWEALTH

Commonwealth powers mainly set out in s 51 –Legislative Powers of the Parliament.

Federalism is reflected in the bicameral (2 houses) Commonwealth legislature – power held by the House of

Representatives (Part III s 24-40) and the Senate (Part II – s 7-23).

S 24 – Constitution of the House of Representatives.

S 7 – The Senate

S 53 – apart from the power to initiate bills that appropriate money ‘the Senate shall have equal power with

the HoR in respect to all proposed laws’.

LIMITATIONS ON CWTH POWER TO REGULATE MATTERS WITHIN STATES

S 51(i) – ‘trade and commerce with other countries and among States’ (i.e. limited to interstate trading) BUT

intrastate trading might be incidental (xxxix) to 51(i). And because the Cth has power to make laws with

respect to (xx) foreign corporations, and trading or financial corps formed within the limits of the Cth, the

Cth could regulate intrastate trading of these entities.

S 51(iii) Bounties – limited by 91 – ‘nothing… prohibits a State from granting… any bounty on mining for……

metals …nor, with the consent from both Houses… any… bounty on the production or export of goods.’

S 51 (x) – ‘fisheries in Australian waters beyond territorial limits’ limits the geographical scope of the Cth

power in regulating fisheries.

S 51 (xiii) ‘banking, other than state banking’ and (xiv)’insurance, other than state insurance’ limits Cth

power regarding state banking and state insurance.

51 (xxxv) …industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one state’ limits Cth power only to disputes

that extend beyond one state, i.e. not within one state.

STATE POWERS REQUIRING COMMONWEALTH CONSENT

S114 – ‘A State shall not, without the consent of the parliament of the Cth, raise or maintain any naval or

military force…’

S112 – ‘inspection laws may be annulled by the parliament of the Cth’

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STATE POWERS TO CONSENT OR WITHHOLD THEIR CONSENT TO CWTH

S123 – ‘alteration to the limits of the State’

S124 – ‘to the formation of a new State formed from the territory of that State”

S51 (xxxiii) ‘the acquisition, with the consent of the State of any railways of the State…

S51 (xxxiv) ‘railway construction and extension in any State with the consent of the State’

TERRITORIAL LIMITS ON LEGISLATIVE POWER

State Parliaments

o The legislative power of the colonies and state parliaments were subject to a territorial limit is traced

to the decision in McLeod v Attorney General for New South Wales [1891] The Privy Council held

that is was not a crime for a resident of a colony to enter into a bigamous marriage in the USA and

that it was an ‘impossible construction because it would be inconsistent with powers committed to a

colony’ as colonies had no extraterritorial powers.

High Court Development on territorial limits to State competence

o Commissioner of Stamp Duties (NSW) v Millar (1932) – The HC held that s 103(1)(b) of the Stamp

Duties Act 1920 (NSW) was beyond the legislative competence of the NSW parliament. Millar had

died domiciled in Victoria, holding a Victorian company which carried out part of mining operations

in NSW. S 103(1)(b) provided that when a person, wherever domiciled, died holding shares in a

company wherever registered or incorporated, which at the time of death was carrying on any

mining… in NSW, the whole of the value of those shares shall be liable to a death duty. The

Commissioner of Stamp Duties NSW demanded that Millar’s estate pay death duties calculated on

the full value of the shares in the Victorian company and this ‘adopts a connection that which is too

remote to entitle its enactment ‘for the peace welfare and good government of NSW – s 5

Constitution Act 1902.

o Broken Hill Sth Ltd v Cmr Taxation (NSW) (1937)– the HC rejected a challenge to the validity of the

Income Tax (Management) Acts 1912 and 1928 NSW where Dixon J stated ‘the power to make laws

for peace, order and good government of a State does not enable the State Parliament to impose by

reference to some act…occurring outside the State a liability upon a person unconnected with a

State.’

o Pearce v Florenca (1976) Florenca had been charged under s 24 (1)(a) of the Fisheries Act (1905) for

having undersized fish ‘whether taken within WA or elsewhere’ taken within 1.5 miles of the WA

coast. Charge was dismissed on the ground that the Sea and Submerged Lands Act (1973) had

rendered the Fisheries Act inoperative in any area below the low water mark of the coast of WA.

Prosecutor appealed to the SC of WA which was then moved to the HC. Gibbs J stated A law to

regulate fishing within off shore waters has a close connexion with the State and can truly be

described as a law for the peace, order and good government of the State. Such a law is within the

competence of a State legislature.

o However Robinson v Western Australian Museum (1977) placed this in doubt. A Dutch ship wreck

from 1656 lay 2.87 miles off the coast of WA. Four judges considered the issue and only one was

prepared to concede a nexus between the state and the adjacent territorial sea. However, this has

all been settled now by Commonwealth law.

AUSTRALIA ACT 1986

In 1986 the Commonwealth and UK parliament enacted the Australia Act which s 2(1) ‘declared and enacted

that the legislative powers of the parliament of each State include full power to make laws for the peace,

order and good government of that State that have extra-territorial operation.’

Gilbert argues that State law making powers always require a sufficient relationship between the law and

the territorially based interest of the enacting state.

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Conversely, Moshinsky argue that the previous requirement of a connection with the state no longer applies.

The decision in Union Steamship Company Co of Australia v King (1988) the justices urged that the

requirement of a territorial connection should be ‘liberally applied’ so that even a ‘remote and general

connection’ would be sufficient, some territorial limitation was sufficient.

In Port Macdonnell Professional Fisherman’s Association Inc v South Australia (1989) the HC in a

unanimous judgment indicated the ‘territorial connection’ for validity. Gibbs J said ‘…extra-territorial

operation… depends not on the distance of the arrangement area but on the existence and nature of the

connexion between SA and the activities

CROWN

The personification of the executive government

S 61 – power is vested in the Queen. Queen usually refers to office of the Monarch; Crown usually

synonymous with executive power

Governor general > advised by executive council (Federal)

Governor > advised by executive council (State)

Crown encompasses the political party holding the majority of HofReps seats, state bodies administering

public services, police, armed forced, affairs of statutory authorities and public utilities that are obliged to

report to the minister responsible/legislature

EXECUTIVE POWERS AND PREROGATIVE POWERS

S 61 – defines executive powers – exec. Power of Cwth is vested in the Queen and exercisable by GG.

Prerogative powers – more specific powers e.g. declaring peace/war, coining money, issuing Letters Patent,

conferring honours, granting pardons, special privileges/immunities, priority rights

Prerogative power has been incorporated into s 61

PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY V CONSTITUTIONAL SUPREMACY

Parliamentary sovereignty – legislative supremacy of Parliament

Technically means power of legislative is supreme and overrides other governmental institutions

Legislative body is not bound by prior laws and may change/repeal them

Scumbag Dicey (See topic 2, part 1 notes)

Doctrine of the separation of powers is applied in Australia HOWEVER the concept of legislative

supremacy/supremacy also influences our legal system

Powers are conferred on Parliament by the Constitution

Parliament cannot exercise power outside of the subject matter set out in the Constitution (as opposed to

lay people who can do anything that is not in the scope of the law)

Constitutional sovereignty overrides parliamentary sovereignty

RESPONSIBLE AND REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

Representative and Responsible Government

o 1823 – an act of the Imperial Parliament (4 Geo IV c96) created the Supreme Court of NSW and

established a Legislative Council which could pass laws for ‘peace, order and good government’ of

NSW BUT laws could only be initiated by the Governor.

o 1842 – the Imperial Parliament established a representative Legislative Council with 2/3rd members

elected on a property based franchise and 1/3rd were appointed by the Crown and the LC had NO

control over government budget.

o 1850 – The NSW Constitutions Act

created a system of representative and responsible government

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established a bicameral legislature in NSW with a Legislative Assembly elected on the basis

of property and income and a Legislative Council with members nominated by the Governor

on the advice of an Executive Council comprising ministers mainly from the assembly.

Ministers had to retire if the parliament lost confidence in them

Parliament took control of government expenditure with taxation and appropriation bills to

be initiated in the assembly.

The system of representative and responsible government at the Cth level was summarised

by a unanimous HC in Lange v ABC (1997)

S 7 and s 24 require the members of the Senate and HoR be directly chosen at periodic

elections by the people of the States and Commonwealth respectively.

s 13 - 6 years is the longest term a senator can serve

S 28 – 3 years for a House of Rep member

S 8 & 30 – ensure each elector votes only once

S 6 – there be a parliament session at least once every year

S 83 – ensures the legislature controls supply

S 62 and 64 – provide for executive power of the Cth

S 49 – grants parliamentary privilege to both house members and provides coercive

authority to summon witnesses or to require the production of documents.

System of government that entails a specific relationship between the Executive and Parliament

Executive is accountable to parliament

Ministers are individually and collectively responsible/answerable to parliament and can only retain office is

the have the confidence of the parliament

In the Cwth, this means confidence of House of Reps. Applies to all states except Qld

Entails particular procedural consequences, including the possibility for citizens to question Ministers about

their running of the country. Executive/individual minister must resign if they lose the confidence of

parliament

Parliamentary government – the executive government comes from within parliament, which entails the

notion of responsible government and therefore the accountability of the executive to the parliament.

Inherited feature from Westminster style of government

EXTRATERRITORIALITY/SOVEREIGNTY

Territorial sphere of validity of law; aspect of sovereignty

Defines the operation of laws on conduct and persons outside the physical territory of the parliament that

makes the laws

See for example ss 51(i); 51(xx); 51(xxix)

Extraterritorial powers of State Parliaments of Australia authorised in Australia Act 1986 s 2(1)

Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973 (Cwth)

o Challenged by the States in NSW v Commonwealth (Seas and Submerged Lands Act) (1975) – held to

be valid under s 51(xxix)

o State law can operate in territorial sea so long as it’s not inconsistent with the Act/Cwth law

o The Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973 (Cth) implemented two international conventions to which

Australia was party and provided that

o Section 6 -…that the sovereignty…of the territorial sea and…air space over it…bed and subsoil is

vested in and exercisable by the Crown in right of the Cth.

o Section 11 -…in respect of the continental shelf of Australia, for the purposes of exploring it natural

resources, are vested in and exercisable by the Crown in the right of the Cth.

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o 6 states began action in the HC seeking to invalidate the Act. HC held the Act to be valid 5:2 primarily

because the Act gave effect to international conventions to which Australia was a party and was

therefore a law with respect to ‘external affairs’ s 51 (xxix)

Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931 by the UK parliament.

Section 3 stated ‘the Parliament of a Dominion has full power to make laws have extra-territorial operation.’

Section 10 stated that s 3 should not extend to Australia until adopted by legislation in Australia.

Section 3 was adopted in 1942 with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act which was declared effective

from 3 Sept 1939.

This reopened the issues visited in the Merchant Services case in R v Foster; Ex parte Eastern and Australian

Steamship Co Ltd (1959) where the HC held the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission could settle

industrial disputes outside of Australia under s 51(xxxv).

SEPARATION OF POWERS

Powers of the government are separated into executive, legislature and judiciary.

Legislature – parliament – makes laws

Executive – cabinet – executes the laws

Judiciary – interprets the laws

In pure form, all three branches should be separate. In practice, judiciary is separate; legislature and

executive blend

Influenced by US system of government

However, constitution supports separation of powers – ss 1, 61, 71 all vest powers in three separate bodies

(federal – federal power; executive – Queen; judicial; - HC respectively)

THE POLITICAL THEORY OF A SEPARATION OF POWERS

The doctrine of the separation of powers asserts that governmental functions and institutions can be divided

into three categories: legislative, executive and judicial and that the functions and institutions should be kept

completely separate. The modern principle of separation of powers is attributed to French philosopher

Baron De Montesquieu who significantly influenced Blackstone and writers of the US Constitution.

Difficulties of the theory include

Conceptual difficulties.

The assumption that the functions of government can be neatly divided into three categories – modern

government is so complex this neat division is frequently impossible.

E.g. reviewing taxation assessments, cancelling the registration of trade unions and investigating restrictive

trade practices (judicial or executive or judicial or legislative??)

Practical difficulties.

A rigorous separation of governmental functions could totally disrupt the affairs of government.

TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE SEPARATION OF POWERS REFLECTED IN OUR CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEMS OF

GOVERNMENT?

The drafting of the Constitution appears to reflect the separation of powers doctrine as three chapters deal

separately with three institutions of government. Ch I: parliament Ch II: the executive and Ch III: the

judicature.

3 sections vest each institution with the functions and powers of government

S 1 – The legislative power of the Cth shall be vested in a federal parliament, which consists of the Queen, a

Senate and a HoR…

S 61 – The executive power of the Cth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the GG…

S 71 – The judicial power of the Cth shall be vested in a Federal Supreme Court, to be called the HC of

Australia…