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INSTANT REPLAY TELEVISION AS A METHOD FOR
TEACHING CERTAIN PHYSICAL ASPECTS
OF CHORAL CONDUCTING
APPROVED:
Graduate Committee
/]
i'tcU Major Profes&or rf
Minor Professor
• —
Commit toe Member
Committee Member
4 At. c/-w.
Dean of the School of Educrtio
Dean of the Gr rad«ale School V
INSTANT REPLAY TELEVISION AS A METHOD FOR
TEACHING CERTAIN PHYSICAL, ASPECTS
OF CHORAL CONDUCTING
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council oi' the
North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
By
John R. Hunter, B. S., M. A,
Denton, Texas
August, 1968
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . . vi
Chapte r
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem Hypotheses Definition of Terms The Experiment Limitations of the Study Background and Significance of the Study Current Practices in Teaching Conducting Summary Organization of the Report
I I . TELEVISION IN EDUCATION • 22
Educational Television Instructional Television
Course Content Teacher Training Teacher In-service Training
Television in Athletics Commercial Television Television and Learning Theory Problems S umma ry
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 40
The Population Equipment Used in the Experiment Disposition of the Television Equipment Control of Variables Selection of Groups Selection-of Music
H i
Selection of Adjudicators Experimental Design Summary
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 54
Reliability of the Adjudicators' Evaluations Pre-instruction Statistical Equality
Between Groups Hypotheses Suramary
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . 65
Summary Conclusions Recommendations
APPENDICES . ' 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY 81
1 V
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I. Frequency of Instructional Methods 16
II. Composition Assignment Frequencies 50
III. Raw Score Evaluations of Nine Subjects by Three Judges 55
IV. Rank Order of Nine Subjects Established by Conversion of Raw Scores 56
V. Means, Mean Difference, Standard Deviations, and t_ Value of the Mean Difference Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group on the Pre-instruction Videotape Recording 57
VI. Means, Mean Differences, Standard Deviations, and _t Values of the Mean Differences Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group in the Nine Areas of Evaluation Derived from the Post-instruction Videotape Recording. . 59
VII. Means, Mean Difference, Standard Deviations, and t_ Value of the Mean Difference Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group on the Post-instruction Videotape Recording. . 62
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Frequency Curves for Data of Table I 17
2. Customary and Altered Three Beat Patterns in Conducting 34
3. The Physical Distribution of Television Equipment During the Experimental Class Sessions 43
v 1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Skill in conducting is a primary requirement of all pro-
spective music educators; consequently, the student majoring
in music education must undergo rigorous training in the tech-
niques of conducting. He must pass a conducting proficiency
examination prior to graduating with a bachelor's degree, and
he is given many opportunities to improve his conducting abil-
ities during practice-teaching experiences. However, in spite
of the emphasis placed on the development of conducting skills,
few students master the conductor's problem of communication
to a degree considered more than adequate. Students are con-
stantly being apprised that, while their performance medium is
either vocal or instrumental, most of their public appearances
will be in the professional capacity of a conductor. Only a
very small percentage of musicians are able to make their pro-
fessional livelihood singing or playing a musical instrument.
The vast majority will make most of their public appearances
representing a school system as conductors of performing
groups. It is quite often that through their ability and
effort as conductors an entire school system may be evaluated.
Therefore, it is imperative that all music students, even
those planning a professional career centered on performance,
be accomplished in all aspects of conducting.
Instructors of conducting classes have used various tech-
niques and methods to help students see themselves as group
motivators, directly responsible for the musical results at-
tained. The traditional methods of instruction in conducting
have been basically
1. teacher-to-stud en t. criticism,
2. student-to-student criticism^
3. student self-criticism through the mirrored image,
4. direct, manipulation of the student's arm by the
teacher.
These methods have proved only partially successful., and any
new technique that could lead to a greater degree of success
would be looked upon favorably by most conducting teachers.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study was to determine the effective-
ness of instant replay television as a method for teaching
certain physical aspects of choral conducting to undergraduate
college or university students majoring in music education.
The sub-problem was to determine the effectiveness of instant
replay television as a method for teaching each of nine spe-
cific techniques of conducting. Those basic techniques were
1. preparatory beat,
2. basic beat movement,
3. dynamic indication,
4. cueingi
5. independence of hands,
6. cut-offs,
7. use of face and e y e s s
8. posture,
9. atterstion to musical detail.
The nature of the problem, to determine the value of a
new teaching aid, indicated an experimental approach: the
comparing of matched groups. One group would be designated
a s Experiment a 1 arid would be instructed using television.
The second group would be designated as Control and would
receive conventional instruction.
Hypo t he s e s
The nine specific areas of conducting stated in the
problem provided the hypotheses to be tested in this study.
The summation of these nine areas provided the hypothesis for
overall achievement. The following hypotheses were tested.
1. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of preparatory beat.
2. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of basic beat patterns.
3. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental, and Control groups in proficiency
of dynamic indication.
4. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of cueing.
5. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of independence of hands.
6. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of cut-offs.
7. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency
of facial communication.
8. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in appropriate-
ness of posture.
9. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in attention to
musi cal detai1.
10. There will be no significant difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups in overall level
of achievement in conducting techniques.
Definition of Terms
It is desirable to define certain terms which are used
in this study. The meanings stated below should help prevent
confusion of interpretation.
1. The phrase instant replay television refers to the
electronic device that can record and immediately replay both
picture and sound from the same video tape.
2. The term experimental variable refers to the one
planned difference in instruction of the subjects in the
Experimental group, instant replay television, from the sub-
jects in the Control group.
3. The term video tape refers to the recording tape
itself. It is this tape which receives and stores the mag-
netic impulses provided by the videotape recorder.
4. For the purposes of this study, the word videotape*
is synonymous with instant replay television.
5. The word adjudicators refers to the judges who
participated in the experiment.
6. The word a d.j ud i ca t i o n refers to the act of viewing
and evaluating the video tapes of the pre- and post-instruc-
tion conducting of all subjects involved in the experiment.
7. The word effectiveness refers to the degree of dif-
ference between the Experimental and Control groups (as the
*The word videotape is occasionally seen as video-tape although the majority of the literature uses the non-hyphenated version. Hereafter, the non-hyphenated word will be used in this study.
result of the adjudication of the post-instruction recordings)
that could be attributed to instant replay television instruc-
tion.
It is also desirable, for the purpose of clarity, to
define the nine specific areas of conducting techniques that
are stated in the problem and included in the hypotheses.
Those definitions appear below.
1 • Preparato ry beat.--The movement of the hand and arm
immediately prior to the first entrance of the ensemble or
the accompaniment.
Basic beat movement.--The prescribed movement of the
hands and arms in units of two, three, four, or more points
o f s t re s s .
3. Dynamic indication.--The use of hands, arms, and
body to evoke different levels of loudness or softness.
4 . Cueing .--The use of the hands or the head to indi-
cate specific entrances of individuals or groups.
5. Independence o f hands.--The ability to move one hand
in a way unrelated to the movement of the other hand.
Cut-off.--The hand movement which leads to cessation
of sound at the end of a phrase or a composition. '
7 • Use of face and e ye s.--The ability to use facial
expres sions to indicate mood, feeling, or temper of a com-
position.
Posture.--The ability to conduct with a singing
stance without excessive or detractive movement.
Attention to mus i cal detail.--The consumation of the
conductor's entire training and musical experience including
all aspects of a musical performance.
The Experiment
The beginning conducting class at North Texas State
University was selected as the group to take part in the
experiment because enrollment was large enough to allow
dividing the class into two groups for experimental treat-
ment. Because of the unusual distribution of voices it was
necessary to use both randomizing and equating to place the
subjects in different groups. Sopranos, because of their
greater number, were randomly assigned. Altos, tenors, and
basses, because of their smaller number, were equated. A
detailed explanation of this procedure is given in Chapter III
Both the Experimental and Control groups were taught by
the same teacher as part of his regular teaching assignment.
All subjects met for a pre-instruction videotape recording of
each individual conducting "America." The Experimental and
Control groups were then separated for a period of ten weeks.
During this time the Experimental group was taught with the
addition of instant replay television, while the Control
group was taught by conventional instruction.
The ten-week period of experimental instruction was
long enough to allow each subject in each group to conduct
an assigned composition and to receive individual instruction.
8
At the conclusion of the experimental period, all subjects in
both groups met for a post-instruction videotape recording.
Pre- and post-instruction tapes of each subject were
viewed and evaluated by three adjudicators to determine the
extent of improvement between groups. The results of the
adjudication were tabulated and evaluated by the _t test for
the significance of the difference between the means. The
results and analysis of these data are given in Chapter IV.
Limitations of the Study
Becoming a competent conductor requires development in
many areas of musicality. For the purpose of this study,
most of those areas were considered to be outside the scope
of the experiment because the immediate replay aspect of the
experimental design could not be utilized. Specifically
those areas eliminated from the study were
1. knowledge of the literature,
2. rehearsal techniques,
3 . a c o u s t i c s ,
4. techniques of vocal production,
5. program building,
6. musical analysis.
Further, students with considerable conducting and/or teaching
experience could not be included in the study for the follow-
ing reasons:
1. T h e i r c o n d u c t i n g a b i l i t y w o u l d p r o b a b l y be' c o n s i d e r -
a b l y a d v a n c e d o v e r the a v e r a g e b e g i n n i n g c o n d u c t i n g s t u d e n t ,
m a k i n g a n a l y s i s of c o m p a r a t i v e i m p r o v e m e n t d i f f i c u l t .
2. An a d v a n c e d c o n d u c t o r w o u l d p r o b a b l y m a k e i m p r o v e -
m e n t in c o n d u c t i n g t e c h n i q u e s in a m i n u s c u l e w a y r a t h e r than
in the m a x i m a l w a y e x p e c t e d of b e g i n n e r s .
3. An a d v a n c e d or e x p e r i e n c e d c o n d u c t o r is f r e q u e n t l y
u n a b l e or u n w i l l i n g to c h a n g e his c o n d u c t i n g b e c a u s e of the
s t r e n g t h s of p r e v i o u s l y held h a b i t s or b e l i e f s .
B e c a u s e of the f o r e g o i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s the f o l l o w i n g
l i m i t a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d :
1. O n l y that a s p e c t of the c o u r s e c o n t e n t of M u s i c 381
that c o n c e r n e d the a c t u a l p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s of c o n d u c t i n g
was e v a l u a t e d .
2. O n l y t h o s e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s r e g u l a r l y e n r o l l e d
in M u s i c 3 8 1 , B e g i n n i n g C o n d u c t i n g , at N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y in the fall of 1 9 6 7 w e r e i n c l u d e d in the s t u d y .
B a c k g r o u n d and S i g n i f i c a n c e of the S t u d y
W h e n an i n d i v i d u a l scans the l i t e r a t u r e that calls a t -
t e n t i o n to the w e a k n e s s e s i n h e r e n t in c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s of
t e a c h i n g c o n d u c t i n g , it is o b v i o u s that n e w m e t h o d s are
n e e d e d . E c k e r (7), D a h l i n (5), and R a s m u s s e n (12) all i d e n -
t i f y the p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in t e a c h i n g c o n d u c t i n g and o f f e r
s u g g e s t i o n s for t h e i r a l l e v i a t i o n . T h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s i n v o l v e
the r e s t r u c t u r i n g of e x i s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s and do not o f f e r
10
anything truly new. There simply was not anything new to
suggest.
The past president of the Music Educators National
Conference, Paul Van Bodegraven (1, p. 32), writing in the
Music Education Source Book, says, "Another course which
does not achieve its purpose is the course in conducting."
Matthews (9, p. 10) says, "The need for the improvement of
collegiate instruction in school music conducting initiated
this study." This present study was initiated by the same
prevailing need.
Recent technological advances have placed a great variety
of television equipment within the reach of all colleges and
universities and many secondary and elementary, schools. With-
in the past two years the number of manufacturers of this type
of product have greatly increased, and, in some instances, the
competition has resulted in lowering of prices (15). Other
manufacturers have concentrated on increasing the number of
special features that add to the versatility of the equipment
(15). With an ever-increasing variety of television recorders
available at a wide range of prices, there is no necessity
for any school to be without a videotape device. Current
uses of videotaping equipment in education are presented in
Chapter II.
Because of the newness of instant replay television in
education, there are no experimental studies which treat the
use of videotaping as a method of teaching the performing
II
arts. Cyphert and Andrews (3, p. 1069) say, "The unavail-
ability of reports of research represents a problem to
scholars in this field." The few articles that are avail-
able give the results in the form of personal opinion with-
out any statistical treatment to validate their statements.
The initial trend in the use of television in education
was toward closed circuit teaching and programmed learning.
Follis (8), in TV. Taping : A_ R e w a r d 1 n g and Remarkable Depar-
ture, explains the closed circuit arrangement in his school
system and cites the improYemeni of instruction and greater
retention of knowledge by the students. Nasca, in Science
Recall and Closed Circuit Instruction, also finds a signifi-
cant improvement in retention of knowledge in chemistry and
physics (11).
Woo ten (18j p. 472), writing in the MENC Source Book III,
s ays,
Television is a wonderful medium which can bring small details clearly and sharply to each child and also give unusual stress to important facts. The isolation of musical themes, phrases, or a single complex rhythm pattern on a cartridge tape is a bless-ing of the medium.
The substance of two recent articles indicates the ex-
pansion of closed circuit television in the public schools:
1. North Highlands Regional High School in Allendale,
New Jersey, recently installed a system which permi. ts the use
of any one of seventy-nine locations throughout the building
as a studio simply by plugging in portable equipment.
12
2. Closed circuit instruction has been used extensively
at the elementary and secondary levels in the schools of Pago
Pago in the Samoan Islands (13).
Extensive use of videotaping in industry is exemplified
by Texas Instruments, Incorporated, of Dallas, Texas, which
uses videotape recordings to describe new products and methods
of technology to its widespread offices and sales engineers
force. So successful has this been that, in cooperation with
Austin College, Sherman, Texas, Texas Instruments is extending
a circuit to its Sherman plant from the network of The Asso-
ciation for Graduate Education and Research of North Texas.
Originating programs will come from Southern Methodist Univer-
sity, Dallas; Texas Christian University, Fort Worth; the
Southwest Center for Advanced Studies, Dallas; and the Uni-
versity of Dallas. Initial course offerings will emphasize
advanced undergraduate and graduate work in science and
engineering. A unique feature will be the use of a two-way
system. "All the TV classrooms will have a 'talk-back' fea-
ture so that the student can talk through a push-botton phone
to the teacher in Fort Worth or Dallas" (16, Sec. D, p. 4).
Self-realization, in the frame of reference of conduc-
ting, involves the ability of the conductor to see himself as
he is and to realize a better conducting technique. This
involves two definitions of the word realization as it pertains
to self: "1. The act of realizing . . , 4. The conversion
13
into fact or action of plans, ambitions, fears, etc." (14,
p. 1121). A study closely related to this important concept
was one made by McDaniel and Filiatreau (10) in A Comparison
o f Televis ion an d Conventional In struct!on a s Determinants
of Attitude Change. The researchers found that carefully
programmed tapes can indeed produce a desired attitude change
more quickly than conventional instruction,, This ability to
change attitudes has a significant bearing on the ability of
a conductor to communicate. A conductor must be aware of his
weaknesses and strengths (and his attitudes toward those
weaknesses and strengths--self-realization) before he generates
the desire to improve his communication with the performing
ensemble. An individual will even reject the criticism of a
teacher because he does not comprehend it as justifiable. If
the cause of the criticism can be illustrated graphically via
television, it could conceivably cause a restructuring of his
attitudes.
There is a study currently underway at the University of
Denver which illustrates the widely divergent paths video-
taping has taken in research. Loring (6) is utilizing video-
tape recordings to analyze a baby's reaction to being ap-
proached at different rates of speed from different directions
and distances.
In the field of music, Daellenbach (4, p. 26), writing
in The Instrumentalist, gives a resume' of the uses to which
14
they put their videotape recorder at the Eastman School of
Music and finds it particularly adaptable to classes in
conducting.
Using the video-tape recorder for conducting classes has also proven successful. Again, the student gets a chance to observe himself conduct as a first violinist would, or a percussionist, or a bassist, or even a member of the audience. It becomes possible for everyone in the class to see the student conducting from all angles. To see what kinds of patterns and •gestures produce r e s u l t s — a n d what often brings on musical disaster--is highly beneficial. Development of conducting poise and left hand facility are achieved much more rapidly when we are able to do more for the student than just describe verbally what he did incor-rectly. Examples of fine conducting are brought into the classroom on video-tape from a variety of sources such as local schools and our own ensemble department. These examples are analyzed and discussed by the stu-dents. We have had the textbook with its conducting patterns and score examples, but now we can bring the printed patterns and notes to life, providing excellent models for the students.
A second report from Eastman School of Music, in the Music
Educators Journal (18), gives much of the same information
without further development or elaboration.
Current Practices in Teaching Conducting
A survey of teaching practices in conducting was carried
out by the investigator as a pilot project prior to this ex-
periment. The project started in March of 1967 with the sub-
mission of a questionnaire to thirty-one schools in the
Southwest. The purpose of this project was to seek answers
to several questions.
15
1. To what extent do conducting teachers currently rely
on the traditional teaching methods of
a. teacher-to-student criticism,
b. student-to-student criticism,
c. direct manipulation,
d. use of the mirrored image?
2. Which schools, if any, used instant replay television
or any other innovation in their conducting classes?
The teachers were asked to indicate how frequently they
used each of the four traditional teaching methods by checking
an appropriate point on a five point scale graduated as
follows: one, never; two, rarely; three, occasionally; four,
often; and five, daily. The data derived from the study
appear below, in Table I and in Figure 1. •
1. Teacher-to-student critic ism.--The traditional class-
room method of lecture and demonstration. All respondents
indicated that they used this method either often or daily,
a range from four to five with a high mean of 4.55. The
results indicate that most teachers rely rather heavily on
this conventional classroom technique.
2* Student-to-student criticism.--This method gives the
student an opportunity to comment on the capabilities of his
fellow students and helps develop his powers of critical ob-
servation. This method had a frequency range from two (rarely)
to five (daily) with a mean of 3.75. The wide range and high
.16
mean indicate that most teachers appreciate the value of this
method while a few teachers allow student opinion to be made
manifest only reluctantly.
3* Direct manipulation.--In this method the teacher
stands behind the student and physically moves the student's
arm in the appropriate movements. This method received the
widest possible range of frequency of use, from one (never)
to five (daily). The probable reason for such a wide range is
that, although direct manipulation is a valid method and most
teachers use it occasionally, many teachers simply will not
place themselves in such close proximity to their students
because of the embarrassment it sometimes causes both teacher
and pupil.
TABLE I
FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Method No. Responses Range* Mean
1. Teacher-to-student criticism 20 4-5 4.55
2. Student-to-student criticism 20 2-5 3.75
3. Direct manipulation 20 1-5 3.05
4. Mirrored image 20 1-4 2.55
*" (1) Never, (2) Rarely, (3) Occasionally, (4 ) Often, (5) Daily. '
17
4« Mirrored image.--The use of a mirror by a student to
observe his conducting technique. Although the range indicated
is wide, from one to four, the mean of 2.55 indicates that most
teachers do not value this method too highly. It is almost
impossible to concentrate on the many facets of conducting and
do a self-evaluation at the same time. As unreliable as this
method is, until now it was the only way a student could see
himself other than through motion pictures.
The illustration below graphically depicts the data given
in Table I. This was included in order to clarify the rela-
tive importance teachers attach to the conventional methods
used in teaching conducting techniques.
Means
Range
' Teacher-to-student criticism — - — — — St u dent-to-student criticism . Di rect manipulation • • • • • • • Mirrored image
Fig. 1--Frequency curves for data of Table I
18
T h e s u r v e y r e v e a l e d that s e v e r a l s c h o o l s do use m e t h o d s
c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t from the four s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s . One
s c h o o l , out of the t w e n t y r e s p o n d e n t s , b e l i e v e d that a s t u d e n t
s e e i n g h i m s e l f c o n d u c t was i m p o r t a n t and m a d e e i g h t mm films
of each s t u d e n t t w i c e a y e a r . T h i s was d e e m e d to be v a l u a b l e
in s p i t e of the d e l a y for p r o c e s s i n g . T w o s c h o o l s o t h e r than
N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y used v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s to a
l i m i t e d d e g r e e w i t h t h e i r c o n d u c t i n g c l a s s e s . One s c h o o l used
the e q u i p m e n t w h e n it was not b e i n g used by the a t h l e t i c
d e p a r t m e n t , and the s e c o n d s c h o o l used t h e i r r e c o r d e r to
v i d e o t a p e the final e x a m i n a t i o n s for m o r e c o n s i s t e n t e v a l u a -
t i o n .
S u m m a r y
C h a p t e r I c o n t a i n s a s t a t e m e n t of the p r o b l e m a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h this s t u d y and l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to the s i g n i f i c a n c e
and the need for the s t u d y . A r e a s of i m p o r t a n c e r e l a t e d to
the p r o b l e m are d e l i n e a t e d as f o l l o w s :
1. H y p o the ses,
2. D e f i n i t i o n of T e r m s ,
3. L i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y ,
4. B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n ,
5. C u r r e n t P r a c t i c e s in the T e a c h i n g of C o n d u c t i n g .
O r g a n i z a t i o n of the R e p o r t
An o v e r v i e w of the uses of t e l e v i s i o n in e d u c a t i o n is
p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r II. C h a p t e r III c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d
19
description of the experimental design and information per-
tinent to its development. The analysis of the data obtained
from the experiment is presented in Chapter IV. Findings,
conclusions, and recommendations are given in Chapter ¥.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bodegraven, Paul Van, Music Education Source Book, Music Educators National Conference, Chicago, 1949.
2. "Closed Circuit Television in Public Schools," Music Educators Journal, LIV October, 1967), 38.
3. Cyphert, Frederick R., and L, 0. Andrews, "Using the Videotaper in Teacher Education," Audiovisual Instruction, LV (December, 1967), 1069-1070.
4. Daellenbach, Charles, "Videotape Recorders at Eastman," The Instrumentalist, XXI (May, 1967), 26-28.
5. Dahlin, Walter Ode 11, "The Relationship Between the Conducting Needs of School Music Teachers and Present Practices in the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, New York, 1951.
6* Denver Post, June 30, 1967, Section B, p. 2.
7. Ecker, Richard, "A Developmental Approach to the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1950.
8. Follis, Lee, "TV Taping: A Rewarding and Remarkable Departure," Educational Screen and AV Guide, XLIV (May-June, 1967), 17, 19.
9. Matthews, Glen, "An Analysis and Evaluation of Methods for Training Skills in School Music Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 1963.
10. McDaniel, Ernest, and William K. Kiliatreau, "A Compari-son of Television and Conventional Instruction as Determinants of Attitude Change," The Journal of Educational Research. LVIII (October, 1965), 76-79.
11. Nasca, Don, "Science Recall and Closed Circuit Television Instruction," The Journal of Educational Research, LIX (October, 1966), 76-79.
20
21
12. Rasmussen, Warren Irvin, "An Investigation and Evalua-tion of Undergraduate Courses in Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1955.
13. Smith, Fred R., "The Keys to a Reefbound Realm," Sports Illustrated, XXVIII (January, 1968), 38.
14. Standard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and Wagnalls, 1963, "p. 1121.
15. Statement made by Terry E. Conner, vice president of Universal Magnetics Incorporated, Dallas, Texas, March, 1968.
16. The Dallas M o r n i n g News, January 14, 1968, Sec. D, p. 1.
17. The Dallas Morning News, March 30, 1968, Sec. D, p. 4.
18. "Videotape at Eastman," Mu sic Educators Journal, LIV (November, 1967), 27.
19. Wooten, Jean B., "The Delmarva Educational Television Project," MENC Source Book III, Perspectives i n Mu sic Education, Music Educators National Conference, Washington, D. C., 1966.
CHAPTER II
TELEVISION IN EDUCATION
Television in education has taken two basic directions,
each of which is frequently confused with the other. It is
necessary to differentiate between educational television,
commonly abbreviated as ETV, and instructional television,
commonly abbreviated as ITV. According to Broyles (2), ETV
is an informal learning situation, while ITV is instruction
in a formal learning situation. Viewers of ETV watch a tele-
cast over open circuit networks and are motivated to improve
themselves without the necessity of having specific goals.
ITV, generally a closed circuit institutional situation,
almost always involves learning connected with personal
advancement leading to an occupation or improvement in a
profes sion .
Educational Television
Educational television stations have grown and developed
extensively since the first one was established at the Uni-
versity of Houston, Houston, Texas, in 1953 (7). There are
now 126 ETV stations in existence or planned in 47 of the 51
states. The only states without such a facility are Montana,
22
23
Wyoming, and Alaska. The topography and population distribu-
tion of these states to some extent account, for their lack of
ETV.
Programming on ETV is quite varied, using material from
network television, professionally made educational films,
and locally produced live shows and films. Network shows
which are adapted to ETV generally consist of musical pro-
grams: opera, concerts, and symphonic works. Other popular
features are travelogues and ethnic and ecological studies.
Preparation of instructional tapes is becoming an impor-
tant aspect of this type of education. The National Center
for School and College Television has nine new telecourses
available (7). Television lessons may also be rented from
the Great Plains Instructional Television-Library in Lincoln,
Nebraska (2). These telecourses are appropriate for both
ETV and ITV. One of the adjudicators involved, in the present
study has prepared a telecourse consisting of four instruc-
tional tapes on conducting and rehearsal techniques for the
State of Georgia (14).
The academic level of course content of ETV will vary
somewhat according to the level of the sponsoring academic
agency. Some ETV stations are owned or operated by the local
public school district and use their own faculties to sup-
plement professional telelessons. Others, such as those
operated by the University of Houston and Loyola University
24
of New Orleans, call upon their own higher education special-
ists. It is not unusual for such institutions to include a
statement in their contracts to the effect that "the party
of the second part further agrees to devote some time to the
educational, programs offered over stations WWL and WWL-TV"
(6). The result of this academic division is that ETV sta-
tions specialize in offering courses that reflect the academic
level o f the sponsoring system.
Instructional Television
According to Culver (3), the formal learning situations
involving ITV have centered on three major areas: course
content, teacher training, and teacher in-service training.
Course content relates to teaching the subject matter of a
particular discipline on either live or taped television.
Teacher training, as opposed to learning a subject, involves
the videotaping, viewing, and evaluating of a practice
teacher's classroom techniques and methods. Teacher in-
service training pertains to the continued education of indi-
viduals professionally employed as teachers.
Course Content
Television in the classroom is designed to improve the
presentation of material to be learned by the students and has
been employed in a variety of-ways, Bretz (1) suggests sev-
eral advantages of taping an experiment in chemistry or physics
25
1. Students can get a close-up view of the proceedings
without having to cluster around the apparatus.
2. Videotaping can be repeated as often as necessary
to obtain an optimum presentation of the material.
3. Once an experiment is taped to the satisfaction of
all concerned^ it is always available.
4. This latter aspect contributes greatly to the con-
sistency of quality instruction.
An Army training tape of the disassembly and reassembly
of a rifle uses the television zoom lens to good advantage.
The videotape begins with a full view of the instructor holding
the rifle, moves to a close-up for primary disassembly, and
finally to an ultra close-up for minute detail work (1). This
procedure puts each class member as close to the rifle as the
instructor himself.
Even with such an unlikely subject as music history, ITV
has some obvious and practical uses. Frank (5) wrote a case
history of just such an approach in a university setting.
Because several teachers were teaching different sections of
the same course, a team teaching approach was utilized. This
procedure allowed the special knowledge of each instructor to
be presented to all sections. Musicians individually develop
extensive knowledge of special areas within the discipline
such as Renaissance, Baroque,.or Classical music, instrumental
or vocal. Such a division of responsibility allowed each
26
instructor more time for preparation in his specialty and
offered the best possible instruction to the students in all
sections.
Videotaping of lectures and demonstrations was done at
a time convenient to the 'instructor, on a day when he had few
other commitments. For a telelesson devoted to the music of
the Baroque Period, a harpsichord was brought to the campus
for a taping session on the only evening it was available (5).
A telelesson on the instruments of the orchestra was taped in
segments at times convenient to the individual performers.
Similarly, guest lecturers were videotaped according to their
availability. All of the foregoing examples point to the fact
that good teaching need not be limited to the hour the class
is scheduled.
One of the greatest advantages of these telelessons,
according to Broyles (2), is the "one-to-oneness" involved.
If the instructor looks directly into the lens of the video
camera, then he has simultaneous eye-to-eye contact with each
individual watching the telelesson. Such communication is
impossible in the conventional teaching situation.
Teacher Training
Schools of education are continually searching for better
ways and methods of preparing their students to teach. Because
of this, institutions concerned with this problem were among
the first to adapt videotaping to their repertoire of methods
27
for instruction. In addition to the closed circuit or tele-
lessons previously mentioned, programmed videotapes have been
employed to bring about a change in a student teacher's class
room method s.
Popham (12) developed four twenty-minute programmed \
videotapes designed to modify the actual instructional be-
havior of teachers in described situations. Each of these
tapes was followed by a ten-minute post-test designed to test
perception and strengthen the impact of the videotaped pro-
gram. The author reported "significant results" but did not
specifically state what those results were nor what consti-
tuted significance.
An experiment by Johnson (9) utilized videotaping, pro-
grammed learning, and conventional instruction in an effort
to determine the effects of prompting, practice and feedback
on learning to observe and report student behavior. A video-
tape was produced which was designed to teach education stu-
dents to observe and report accurately. Four groups of stu-
dents were involved in the experiment and were taught in the
following manner:
1. by conventional instruction,
2. by videotape reinforcement,
3. by programmed learning,
4. by both videotape and programmed learning.
The findings indicated a significant improvement in the
28
ability to observe and report student behavior by the group
which received both videotape arid programmed learning.
Immediate feedback (instant replay television) has also
been employed as a method for teaching classroom techniques.
Student teachers have been videotaped in the classroom and
then have viewed the replay. The replay is generally accom-
panied by verbal reinforcement given by the instructor. The
School of Education at North Texas State University maintains
a student-teaching classroom which can be viewed or video-
taped through a one-way window. Soon facilities will be
enlarged to allow the taking of an electrocardiograph of the
student teacher at the same time he is being videotaped.
Through a split-screen process, someone could view the stu-
dent and the electrocardiograph tracing simultaneously on a
single monitor. This technique could give valuable data on
certain aspects of stress experienced by the beginning teacher
Teacher In-Service Train inq
A good teacher constantly evaluates his teaching* prac-
tices to determine his effectiveness. There is evidence that
a teacher can learn much about himself and be able to modify
his classroom techniques to become even better through watch-
ing a videotape replay of himself.
Thorenson (17) did an exploratory study of one specific
student learning p roblem: oral non-participation in discus-
sion classes. A counselor worked directly with seven college
29
history teachers viewing excerpts from videotapes of their
own classroom discussion sessions. During the playback of
the tapes, the counselor verbally and non-verbally reinforced
certain instructor behaviors seen on the videotape. Four
instructors viewed the tapes individually with the counselor;
three instructors viewed the tapes in a group with the coun-
selor. Results of the study indicated the following:
1. The instructors felt that video-playback counseling
was helpful in changing their behavior in the classroom.
2. Instructors became more aware of how their verbal
and non-verbal cues influenced student behavior.
3. Small group playback seemed as effective as individual
playback.
This type of operation seems to indicate that a counseled
appraisal of a teacher's classroom technique should be an in-
tegral of teacher in-service training.
As coordinator of Instructional Radio and Television
Utilization for the Dade County Public Schools, Miami, Florida,
Culver (3) specifies the uses of television in their in-
service training program.
Television as a medium for in-service has provided the school system an opportunity to conduct types of research which could not otherwise be done as well. It is a means of informing teachers of new developments in content areas, new methods of presentation, new ways of using resources, and of new materials available for classroom use (p. 912).
A camera will record the teaching situation and provide a mirror for se1f~eva1uation and improvement. Complexities of teaching can be carefully analyzed
30
through repeated viewings of video tapes. Teachers can focus on particular aspects of the teaching-learning process and study them repeatedly to determine strengths as well as weaknesses (p. 913).
The examples presented in the preceding paragraphs indi-
cate a variety of applications of television for teacher in-
service training. Apparently, the number and type of appli-
cations are limited only by the imagination of the television
dire ctor.
Television in Athletics
One of the earliest uses of videotaping equipment out-
side of commercial television occurred in sports, particularly
football. Instant replay, plus slow-motion, allowed the
viewer to see outstanding plays repeatedly and permitted
detailed examination of specific plays. Professional teams,
and later colleges and high schools, became aware of the
advantages of taping an entire game for later evaluation.
They then realized that an opponent's play could be evaluated
during the course of a game and counter measures put into
force. This latter aspect soon met with disapproval from the
governing bodies of all organized sports and resulted in the
banning of the viewing of videotapes during a contest. In
the absence of penalties for doing so, scouts and coaches
continued to use videotape equipment during the game. This
year the American Football League added the needed penalties
for violation of the rule by authorizing a five-year suspension
31
for the guilty person and a fine of up to $50,000.00 for the
offending team (4). The size of the fine possible is indica-
tive of the advantage instant replay television presumably would
afford one team over another which did not use videotaping.
In sports other than football, videotaping has proven
helpful in almost every area of athletic endeavor. Speed
(15), writing in the Athletic Journal, tells of its value to
tennis, track, ice hockey, gymnastics, and archery. Other
areas that benefit from "mirror TV" (11) are golf (club
swing and stance) and baseball (batting). In all of these
areas "form" is an important element for achievement. Instant
replay television gives an athlete the opportunity to analyze
his form in depth, to define and refine those movements which
are most conducive to success. The parallel between form in
athletics and form in musical conducting is that the conductor,
also relying on muscular coordination, can define and refine
his moves just as beneficially as an athlete. Efficiency in
every one of the nine areas of basic conducting techniques
evaluated in this study is determined from the form exhibited
by the student conductors. A conductor without form may be
likened to a singer with laryngitis: neither one can achieve
satisfying results.
Commercial Television
Commercial television should not be overlooked as an
educational medium. Music teachers frequently assign the
32
viewing of a particular show as part of their students' music
education. An example of such a program was the Sol Hurok
Presents special which was telecast in March, 1968. Pianists
had the opportunity to hear and view the artistry of one of
the greatest pianists of all time, Artur Rubinstein, and also
to observe the outstanding conducting of Alfred Wallenstein.
Observing such excellent musicians could do much toward the
development of an aspiring young musician.
Another outstanding example of the educational capabil-
ities of commercial television was the American Broadcasting
Company's program titled How Life Begins,which also appeared
in March, 1968. This program, assigned viewing for many
junior high school science students, tastefully, accurately,
and beautifully told of the process of reproduction, showed
the birth of a dog and a calf, and finally, the birth of a
human being. The consumate quality and clarity of this com-
mercial television program was an educational experience for
viewers of any age.
Television and Learning Theory
Any experiment involving the teaching-learning process
must have some foundation in the theories of learning. The
instant replay aspect of the experiment and the physical
activity of conducting indicated several concepts of learning
theory appropriate to the study. Those concepts are
1. immediate reinforcement,
2. insight development,
33
3. the Gestalt "whole,"
4. ego involvement.
A discussion of the application of these areas to the
experiment follows.
Immediate Reinforcement
The principal learning theory supporting instant replay
television is that of immediate reinforcement, the strength-
ening of a response (conducting) by the addition of another
stimulus (television). The immediacy of the replay, only a
few seconds following the conclusion of the conducting ses-
sion, continues the involvement of the subject and reinforces
the teacher's constructive evaluation of the performance.
Responses gained immediately after a performance can be
reinforced more solidly than responses gained after a con-
siderable amount of time has elapsed. According to Hull (8),
the greater the delay in reinforcement, the weaker the reac-
tion potential, based on a gradient which falls off rapidly
in the beginning. Because of this, videotaping has the
obvious advantage over cinematography and the necessary delay
involved with processing.
In s i ght Development
Another type of learning resulting from videotaping is
the development of insight (8). This refers to the ability
of an individual to see relationships in a new situation
34
which could lead to an adjustment, the solution of a problem,
or to improvement in a skill. The process of an individual's
observing himself on videotape immediately after conducting
could be conducive to hastening insight development.
The Gesta 11 Whole
One of the primary premises of Gestalt psychology is
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. One
dictionary defines a Gestalt as "a functional configuration or
synthesis of separate elements of emotion, experience, . . .
that constitutes more than the mechanical sum of the parts"
(16, p. 561). Nowhere is this concept more evident than in
a conductor's beat pattern. Regardless of the number of
beats or points of stress in a pattern, to alter one beat
point within a pattern is to change the entire structure of
that pattern. For this reason, standardized beat patterns
are taught throughout the world. In the illustration below,
a comparison of customary and altered three beat patterns,
only beat one in the altered version has been changed. To
Customary Altered
Fig. 2--Customary and altered three beat patterns in conducting.
35
use the altered version with a choir would cause consider-
able confusion among the singers. It would be particularly
true in this instance because the Gestalt or whole has been
destroyed by changing a primary point of reference, the down
beat.
Ego Involvement
•Finally, the student who views himself on videotape can
experience greater ego involvement. This can raise his level
of aspiration, can make him want to learn the tools of his
trade because of what he knows can be accomplished with them.
Problems
Television, in any form, is not a panacea for the prob-
lems that exist in education. Too often some teachers seek a
magic ingredient that would apparently and forever absolve
them of the necessity of good teaching. When this happens,
the project is ultimately doomed to failure. The difficulty
in using television lies not in expecting the ultimate,
though this occasionally happens, but in not facing the prob-
lems involved realistically.
Some of the common mistakes made by schools attempting
to use television are given by Lapham (10, p. 939);
1. not knowing exactly what the television equipment was expected to accomplish,
2. not hiring an experienced television project manager,
3. not commiting enough money to accomplish the intended television mission.
36
W e b e r (19), in W h at Went W r o n g ? , cites the lack of
q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n s for a d e q u a t e m a i n t e n a n c e of the e qui p-
m e n t . H a p p i l y , this s i t u a t i o n is b e i n g r e m e d i e d as m o r e
r e g i o n a l s e r v i c e c e n t e r s are o p e n e d and as sales of this
type of e q u i p m e n t c o n t i n u e to r i s e . W e b e r also calls a t t e n -
tion to the p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t when the s y s t e m is not a u n i -
fied one, that is, when it is a c o m p o s i t e of the goods of
m a n y m a n u f a c t u r e r s . T h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n d u s t r y is in a state
of flux. M a n u f a c t u r e r s f r e q u e n t l y cease p r o d u c t i o n of a
s p e c i f i c m o d e l , sell out, or c h a n g e d e s i g n . W h e n this o c c u r s ,
the o w n e r of the e q u i p m e n t f r e q u e n t l y is u n a b l e to o b t a i n
m a i n t e n a n c e s e r v i c e and must p u r c h a s e new items to keep the
e n t i r e system o p e r a b l e .
P r o b l e m s o t h e r than e q u i p m e n t must be c o n s i d e r e d .
R i c h a r d s o n (13, p. 9 1 6 ) raises the q u e s t i o n of the t e a c h e r ' s
a u t o n o m y .
Does the c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r r e a l l y have any a u t o n o m y when a p r e p a r e d lesson comes into his c l a s s -room at a s p e c i f i e d t i m e - - a lesson over w h i c h he has no c o n t r o l and w h i c h he cannot i n t e r r u p t as he sees fit?
T o b i a s (18) cites e v i d e n c e that some t e a c h e r s see t e l e -
v i s i o n as a threat to their e x i s t e n c e .
The latter terms [Educational Television and TV Tutor] were, in fact seen as having marked implica-tions of being used independently of the teacher , . #
and . • . partially associated with automation (p, 95) .
The teachers who dislike certain kinds of materials are likely to affect the achievement of their pupils by the use of such materials in a
37
negative way, thus ending up with "evidence" to support their previously held biases (p. 98).
Another word of warning is given by Broyles (2).
If a student is to see on a box in the corner of the room only what he could see better in its proper scale right there in the classroom, tele-vision is a waste of time and money (p. 918).
These warnings are not intended to deter anyone from
making use of television in education. Rather, it is to
better prepare the prospective user so that he may benefit
from his predecessors. "What television becomes depends
upon our expectations" (3, p. 914).
Summary
This chapter has attempted to show the divergent uses
of television in various forms of educational adaptations.
Further, it has attempted to relate instant replay television
to certain learning theory concepts upon which this study was
established. Finally, acknowledgment was made of some of
the difficulties and problems that have arisen from the
application of television to educational procedures.
The following chapter delineates the design of the
experiment involving instant replay television.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bretz, Rudy, "Low-Cost Video Tape Recordings: AV Tool or Medium," A u d i o v-.i s u a 1 Ins truction , XII (November, 1967), 948-951.
2. Broyles, Glenwood E., "Learning Models for Television: Improving the Program Content," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 917-920.
3. Culver, Katherine B,, "New and Promising Uses of ITV," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 910-914 .
4* Denton (Texas) Record-Chronicle, February 22, 1968, p . 10 .
5. Excerpt from a Loyola University contract, 1968.
6. Frank, Jack B., "Teaching a Freshman Music Course on Television: A Case History," Audiovisual Instruction, XI (February, 1966), 103-105.
7. "Growth of Educational Television," School and Society, VC (January, 1967), 28.
8. Hull, Clark L., cited by Ernest R. Hilgard, Theori es o f Learning, New York, Appleton, Century, Crofts, Incorporated, 1956, p. 135.
9. Johnson, Rita B., "The Effect of Prompting, Practice and Feedback in Programmed Videotape," Ameri can Educational Research Journal, V (January, 1968), 73-79.
10. Lapham, Harry R., "Avoiding Common Pitfalls in the Planning of a Practical Instructional Television System," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November. 1967). 939-943.
11. Miles, James S., "Purdue's Television Unit," Audiovisual Instruction, X (September, 1965), 558-559.
38
39
12. Popham, W. James. ''las t rue t i o na 1 Video Tapes in Teacher Education," AV Communication Review, XIV (Fall, 1966), 371-376.
13. Richardson, Elinor, "Inquiry in Instructional Television: A Pilot Project," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 915-916.
14. Statement made by Lloyd Pfautsch in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.
15. Speed, R. C., "Videotape for Coaching," Athletic Journal, IIL (September, 1967), 48.
16. Standard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1963, p. 561.
17. Thorenson, Carl E., "Video in the College Classroom: An Exploratory Study," Personnel and_ Guidance Journa 1 , VL (October, 1966), 144-149.
18. Tobias, Sigmund, "Dimensions of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Instructional Media," Ameri can Educat ional Research Journal, V (January, 1967), 91-98.
19. Weber, Morris, "What Went Wronq?" Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 937-938.
CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The Population
The subjects in the experiment were students regularly
enrolled in Music 381, titled Beginning Conducting, at North
Texas State University in the fall semester of 1967. A total
of forty-eight students constituted the subjects for the
study,
The characteristics of the subjects permitted a homo-
geneous grouping. All of these subjects were at the junior
level, most were music majors or concentrations, and a few
were elementary or secondary education majors with music as
a second teaching field. All of the men and a few of the
women had had some previous experience in conducting a choral
group.
The one unusual aspect of the population, which occurred
entirely by chance, was the unbalanced distribution of voices.
Of the forty-eight subjects twenty-six were sopranos, ten
were altos, four were tenors, and eight were basses.
Equipment Used in the Study
The television equipment used with the Experimental group
wa s
40
41
1. an Ampex Corporation videotape recorder, model
VR 7000, which uses one inch tape,
2. one Universal Magnetics Incorporated television
camera with viewfinder, model VF 7000,
3. one Canon zoom lens, model 16,
4. one Sylvania television camera, model VRF 400,
5. one Sylvania camera switcher, model TVCA 107/AV-812,
6. one Sampson Quick-set tripod, light duty,
7. two Electro~Voice microphones, models 676 and 647A,
8. two Setche11-Car1son Educator monitors with twenty-
three inch screens, model 2100SD,
9. one McMartin audio mixer preamplifier, model LX40.
The library of video tapes used in the experiment con-
sisted of six one-hour tapes and fifty-four tapes of twelve
minutes duration. The one-hour tapes were used repeatedly to
record the conducting of the Experimental group members during
their regular class meetings. The contents of these tapes
were not retained and were not viewed by the adjudicators.
Each individual in each group was assigned his own personal
twelve-minute tape on which were recorded the pre- and post-
instruction conducting. These were the video tapes that were
viewed and evaluated by the adjudicators.
Disposition of the Television Equipment
In order to avoid exposing the Control group to the ex-
perimental variable, the television equipment was kept stored
42
on the days when it was not actually in use with the Experi-
mental group. During the recording of the pre- and post-
instruction tapes, the monitors were not viewed by any of
the subjects who later comprised both the Experimental group
and the Control group. Thus, those participants who sub-
sequently became the Control group never saw themselves, or
anyone else, conducting on television.
The physical arrangement of the equipment utilized
during the experimental class sessions is shown in the il-
lustration presented on the following page. (See Figure 3,
p. 43.) Classes met in the band rehearsal room,which was
large enough (50 x 80 feet) to allow placement of the tele-
vision equipment in such a way as to present minimum distrac-
tion. All television technicians were located behind the
class. Camera two (f) was fixed-focus and was left unat-
tended. Switching from camera one (e) to camera two (f),
described later in this chapter, was accomplished from the
position of the recorder (g).
Camera one was placed at a slight angle, twenty-five
feet in front of the subject doing the conducting. Camera
two was placed fifteen feet to the left of the subject to
provide a profile view. Two cameras were used in order to
provide a better opportunity for evaluation by the adjudi-
cators .
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Control of Variables
The two groups, Experimental and Control, were taught
in the same classroom at the same hour of the day by the same
instructor. The two groups alternated meeting on Tuesdays
and Thursdays to avoid any advantage one day might have over
the other. Both groups met together on Saturday for lecture
and demonstration to assure uniformity of instruction. Course
content and method of presentation, except for the experi-
mental variable, were the same for both groups. Randomiza-
tion and equating of group assignments, conducting assign-
ments, recording order, and viewing by the judges were steps
undertaken in an effort to negate any chance of prejudice,
bias, or favoritism.
Selection of Groups
Because of the unusual distribution of voices and the
necessity of having balanced vocal groups, it was necessary
to use both randomisation and equating to determine the group
membership of the subjects. Sopranos, because of their
greater number, were assigned to group A or group B by using
a table of random numbers. Altos, tenors, and basses,
because of their smaller number, were equated according to
major (music, music education, or general education), teaching
field (vocal or instrumental), and previous conducting experi-
ence. After equating, the subjects were assigned to either
group A or group B.
45
Before deciding which group would receive the experi-
mental treatment, an effort was made to minimize the Hawthorne
effect by (1) stressing the fact that the selection of the
Experimental group was strictly a matter of chance, (2) as-
suring all subjects that the results obtained would have no
bearing on their final grade for the course, and (3) assuring
equal use of the television equipment to the Control group at
the conclusion of the experiment. At the conclusion of the
pre-instruction recording, the flip of a coin determined
that group A would constitute the Experimental group.
Selection of Music
For the pre-instruction recording it was the opinion of
the instructor and the investigator that the composition to
be used in this procedure should be one of simplicity, con-
taining a minimum number of conducting problems. "America"
was chosen because of its easy three beat pattern, the lack
of conducting difficulties, and the fact that the text and
music were generally well known to all the subjects.
The selection of the compositions for the post-instruc-
tion recording presented problems of a different nature. To
afford aural relief for the adjudicators as well as to provide
differences in styles and conducting problems, it was decided
that three compositions should be used. Those selected were
"Break Forth, 0 Beauteous Heavenly Light," by J. S. Bach; "Jesu,
Priceless Treasure," by Johann Cruger; and the "Ave Verum," by
46
Wolfgang Mozart. All three compositions required a sub-
divided four-beat pattern, varying from legato to marcato.
Two different p r e p a r a t o r y beats were required, also frequent
dynamic changes and differences in cut-offs and style inter-
pretation. The "Ave Veruin" placed considerably more stress
on cueing than did the other two compositions. Random assign
ment of these three compositions to all forty-eight subjects
produced an even frequency distribution of these differences.
(See Table II, page 50.)
Selection of A d j u d i c a t o r s
Although competent judges were available on the music
faculty of North Texas State U n i v e r s i t y , it was deemed advis-
able to secure judges from other institutions to avoid any
p o s s i b i l i t y of prejudice and bias. The judges selected to
participate in the evaluation of the recordings fit all of
the requirements of ability, k n o w l e d g e , and professional
stature. Each adjudicator possessed the following qualifi-
cations :
1. many years of experience in university choral
conducting,
2. many years of experience in the teaching of
conduct ing,
3. extensive experience in a d j u d i c a t i n g ,
4. numerous published choral compositions.
47
In addition, the schools they represented offered a cross-
section of institutions which could utilize such a method of
teaching conducting. The judges and the schools they repre-
sented were
1. Lloyd Pfautsch of Southern Methodist University,
Dallas, Texas;
2. Robert Hines of Wichita State University, Wichita,
Kansas;
3. Daniel Moe of the University of Iowa, Iowa City,
lo wa .
Experimental Design
Music 381, titled Beginning Conducting, was scheduled to
meet Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday at 11:00 a.m. At the
beginning of classes in the f-all semester of 1967, all sub-
jects met together at the regularly appointed time for pre-
liminary instruction in the preparatory beat, the three beat
pattern, and the cut-off. Instruction in these three areas
of the physical aspects of conducting would enable a -beginning
conductor to start, conduct, and stop the ensemble on the pre-
instruction recording o f "Amer i ca ."
After the period of preliminary instruction consisting
of two class meetings, each subject was recorded on individual
television tapes, conduct ing "Ameri ca wi th the entire sample
serving as a choral ensemble so that the effect of sound
could be included. During the recording of the pre-instruetion
48
videotape, recording began with camera one, switched to
camera two at measure seven, and returned to camera one at
measure eleven. Switching was done to give the adjudicators
a better opportunity to evaluate the subjects. The specific
spots chosen for the switching were selected to avoid any
conflict with any of the areas to be evaluated.
During the experimental period, the Experimental and
Control groups alternated meeting on Tuesday and Thursday
with the combined groups meeting on Saturday. The Tuesday
and Thursday sessions were primarily for actual conducting
experience for both groups, while the Saturday session was
for lecture and demonstration by the instructor to assure
uniformity of instruction.
Teaching procedures for both groups were the same except
for the addition of instant replay television with the Experi-
mental group. Step-by-step instruction for the Control group
occurred in the following order.
1. The student conducted the class in an assigned com-
position.
2. The teacher criticized the student's conducting.
3. The students of the class criticized their fellow
student.
4. The teacher demonstrated, if necessary.
5. The student repeated the difficult area, if neces-
sary .
49
Instruction for the Experimental group differed only in
that the class and the individual saw a taped replay of his
conducting.
1. The student conducted the class in an assigned com-
position.
2. The teacher criticized the student's conducting.
3. The videotape recording was played.
4. The students of the class criticized their fellow
student.
5. The teacher demonstrated, if necessary.
6. The student repeated the difficult area, if neces-
sary.
7. The videotape recording was replayed, if necessary.
For ten weeks the two groups worked separately on the
physical techniques of conducting until each subject in each
group had had the opportunity to conduct and receive individual
instruction. Each subject in the Experimental group had the
opportunity to view himself and the rest of the class in the
televised practice sessions.
At the conclusion of the experimental period, all sub-
jects in both groups were assigned the same three compositions
to be prepared for the post-instruction recording. These
compositions, described on pages 45 and 46 of this study,
were assigned to the individual subjects employing a table of
random numbers. No participant knew which composition he
50
would conduct until immediately prior to the actual conducting
and videotape recording. The random assignment of the compo-
sitions yielded uniform frequencies as seen in Table II.
TABLE II
COMPOSITION ASSIGNMENT FREQUENCIES
Group Cruge r Bach Mozart
Control 7 10 7
Experimental T 10 7
Thus, although the compositions were different, and alike,
in many respects, these differences and likenesses were
evenly distributed between the groups.
Since the recording order on the pre-instruction tapes
was randomized, the post-instruction recordings were taken
in the same order. (See Appendix D, page 79.) This proce-
dure provided the same advantage, or disadvantage as that
enjoyed on the first recording.
Switching from camera number one to camera number two
and return occurred in the following places in the'three
post-instruction compositions.
1. In "Break Forth, 0 Beauteous Heavenly Light,"the
switch to camera two occurred on the third beat of measure
five and returned to camera one on the first beat of measure
ten.
51
2. In "Jesu, Priceless Treasure," the switch to camera
two occurred on the fourth beat of measure seven and returned
to camera one on the fourth beat of measure thirteen.
3. In the "Ave Verura," the switch to camera two occurred
on the first beat of measure twenty and returned to camera
one on the first beat of measure thirty-three.
These specific spots for switching were chosen to avoid
coinciding with any evaluation area such as cueing or cut-
off. Switching was identical for all subjects to assure
uniformity of opportunity for evaluation.
Two weeks prior to the adjudication date the judges were
furnished with a sample evaluation instrument (see Appendix A,
page 75), and a detailed set of criteria covering each area to
be evaluated (see Appendix B, page 76). This sample provided
them with the opportunity to become acquainted with the vari-
ous areas to be evaluated, to ascertain what constituted
proficiency in each of those areas, and to fully understand
the method of evaluation.
After concluding the post-instruction recording, the
three adjudicators were assembled at North Texas State Uni-
versity to view and evaluate the recordings. The judging of
the forty-eight pre- and post-instruetion recordings began
at 9:00 a.m. on December 21, 1967, and were concluded at
4:30 p.m. the same day.
52
The judges viewed the tapes in the same order in which
they were recorded. The judges did not know the identity of
the subjects nor their group membership. The judges were
cautioned not to consult each other concerning the evaluation
of any of the subjects. Questions raised by the adjudicators
concerning evaluations were resolved by the investigator prior
to the viewing of the tapes.
Each judge was furnished with an evaluation instrument
for each subject which required only the checking of a given
variable at a particular level of achievement. Because each
subject had an individual tape containing both the pre- and
post-instruction recordings, the judges could easily ask for
a replay of any of the subject's tapes for clarification or
confirmation of their previous evaluation. Several of the
tapes which showed a particularly high difference between the
two recordings were re-viewed.
The results of the adjudicators' evaluations were tabu-
lated, computer evaluated for the _t test for the significance
of the difference between the means at the .05 level, and
analyzed. The following chapter contains a report of the
findings, and the analysis of these data.
Summary
This chapter presented a detailed description of the
experimental design and of the factors directly associated
with that design. Those factors were
53
1. the population involved and the selection of groups,
2. the equipment used in the experiment and the disposi
tion thereof,
3. the control of variables,
4. the selection of the music and the adjudicators.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the data which
were collected in the manner described in the previous chapter
and to summarize the findings obtained from such an analysis.
The data analyzed will be that pertinent to the following:
1. the reliability of the adjudicator's evaluations,
2. the statistical equality between groups prior to the
beginning of the experiment,
3. the results obtained for each of the ten hypotheses.
Reliability of the Adjudicator's Evaluations
It was necessary to establish the reliability of the
adjudicator's evaluations in order to be able to draw con-
clusions concerning the data. The Kendall coefficient of
concordance was used to determine the degree of agreement
between the three adjudicators. This coefficient is deter-
mined by comparing the rank (high, medium, or low) assigned
to an individual by the three judges. Ranks were determined
by converting the raw scores achieved on the post-instruction
recording. Nine sets of raw scores, selected at random from
54
55
the total number of forty-eight, we re converted to rank order
and statistically treated with the Kendall formula for the
coefficient of concordance. This formula appears below. For
a detailed explanation of the formula see Appendix E, page 80,
W = ( 1 )
^ N 3 - N J Table III contains the raw scores assigned by the judges
to the nine individuals who were randomly selected. Table IV
contains the rank order of the nine subjects derived from the
raw scores given in Table III.
TABLE III
RAW SCORE EVALUATIONS OF NINE SUBJECTS BY THREE JUDGES
Subj ect s Judges
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Judge One 19 37 22 40 32 21 20 22 35
Judge Two 20 36 18 42 32 16 16 20 35
Judge Three 21 34 21 30 36 19 16 22 36
In converting raw scores to ranks, the highest score was
assigned rank one. When tied scores occurred, the scores
were assigned the average of the ranks they would have been
assigned had no ties occurred.
TABLE IV
RANK ORDER OF NINE SUBJECTS ESTABLISHED BY CONVERSION OF RAW SCORES
56
Subj ects Judges
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Judge One 9 2 5.5 1 4 7 8 5.5 3
Judge Two 5.5 2 7 1 4 0.5 8.5 5.5 3
Judge Three 6.5 3 6.5 4 1.5 8 9 5 1.5
V 21.0 7 19.0 6 9.5 23.5 25.5 16.0 7.5
A perfect concordance would yield a W = l.OO. The co-
efficient of concordance obtained for nine subjects and three
judges was W = .925. The reliability of the judges' evalua-
tions appeared to be adequate for this study.
Pre-Instruction Statistical Equality Between Groups
In order to realistically evaluate any difference between
the two groups on the post-instruction videotape reording, it
was necessary to determine the statistical equality of the
groups at the beginning of the experimental period. Table V
contains the data derived from the pre-instruction recording
and includes the means, mean difference, standard deviations,
and _t value of the mean difference between the Experimental
group and the Control group on the pre-instruction videotape
recording.
TABLE V
MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCE, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND _t VALUE OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP ON THE PRE-INSTRUCTION
VIDEOTAPE RECORDING
57
Group Mean Mean Difference S .D. jt
Control 21.6500 4.7293 .0150 .0892
Experimental 21.7750 4.7738
For a difference between the groups to be significant
at the .05 level, a _t of 2.01 was required. As shown in
Table V, the _t value of .0892 for the difference between the
means of the Experimental and Control groups on the p re -
instruction recording indicates no significant difference.
On that basis it was possible to make judgments concerning
the differences between the two groups on the post-instruc-
tion videotape recording.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses stated in Chapter I predicted that "there
will be no significant, difference between the means of the
Experimental and Control groups" in each of the nine areas of
evaluation and in overall achievement. These areas were
1. preparatory beat,
2. basic beat movement,
58
3. dynamic indication,
4. cueing,
5. independence of hands,
6. cut-offs,
7. facial communication,
8. posture,
9. attention to musical detail.
The raw score data obtained from the adjudicators' eval-
uations were treated statistically with the _t test for the
significance of the difference between the means of the two
groups. All computations were done by computer.
Results
Following are the results and the analysis of the data.
Means, mean differences, standard deviations, and t_ values
for each of the nine areas of evaluation are stated in
Table VI. It will be remembered that a _t value of 2.01 must
be achieved to be statistically significant at the .05 level.
1. Preparatory be at.--A comparison of the means for
this area revealed a difference between the means of .5000
in favor of the Experimental group. The resultant _t value
of .9893 was considerably smaller than the 2.01 required.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
2« Basic beat m o v e m e n t . — T h i s area produced the largest
difference between the means of the two groups, 1.0417. The
resultant jt of 1.5516 was also the largest obtained although
59
less than the required 2.01. The data indicated no" statis-
tically significant difference between the two groups in
this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
TABLE VI
MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCES, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t_ VALUES OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
AND THE CONTROL GROUP IN THE NINE AREAS OF EVAL-UATION DERIVED FROM THE POST-INSTRUCTION
VIDEOTAPE RECORDING
Area
Group Means
Control Experi mental
Mean Differ-ence
S .D
Control Expe ri• mental
1. Prepara-tory Beat
2. Basic Beat Patterns
3. Dynamic Indication
4. Cueing
5. Independ-ence of Hand s
6. Cut-offs
7. Facia 1 Commun i -cation
8. Posture
9. Atten t ion to Musical Detail
8.2500
9.1416
8.4166
8.7083
8.9583
8.2500
8.9166
10.7916
8 .3333
8.7500
10.0833
9.4166
8.6666
9.5000
9.0000
9.5416
10.9166
8.7500
.5000
1 .0417
1.0000
-.0417
.5417
.7500
.6250
.1250
.4167
1 .9843
2.6375
2.6912
2.6999
2.1110
2.4874
2.7676
1.4427
2 .4267
1.3919
1.8465
2.6601
1.8856
2.2912
1.9578
3.0135
1.7300
2.1842
.9893
1.5516
1. 2673
-.0606
.8338
1. 1362
.7325
.2661
.6120
60
Dynamic i n d i c a t i o n . — T h e observed difference between
the means of 1.0000 produced a _t value of 1.2673 in favor of
the Experimental group. The data indicated no statistically
significant difference between the two groups in this area.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
4- Cueing.--In this one area only did the difference
between the means, and the t_ value, favor the Control group.
The observed mean difference of -.0417 and the resultant
t_ value of -.0606 indicated no difference between the two
groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
accepted .
5. Independence of hands.--The observed difference
between the means of .5417 produced a jt value of .8338 in
favor of the Experimental group. The data indicated no
statistically significant difference between the groups in
this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
Cut-offs.--The observed difference between the means
of .7500 produced a _t value of 1.1362. The data indicated no
statistically significant difference between the two groups
in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
7. Facial communi ca tion.--The observed difference
between the means of .6250 produced a t_ value of .7325. The
data indicated no statistically significant difference between
the two groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis
was accepted.
61
®* Posture.--The observed difference between the means
of . 1250 produced a _t value of .2661. The data indicated no
statistically significant difference between the two groups
in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
9* Attention to musical det a i 1.---The observed differ-
ence between the means of .4167 produced a t value of .6120.
The data indicated no statistically significant difference
between the two groups in this area. Therefore, the null
hypothesis was accepted.
10. Overall achievement.--The observed difference between
the means of 1.6804 produced a t_ value of .9725. The data
indicated no statistically significant difference between the
groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
accepted .
Table VII, on page 62, contains the means, mean differ-
ence, standard deviations, and _t value derived from the
evaluation of the post-instruction recording. It will be
recalled that the two groups were statistically equal in
conducting ability at the beginning of the experimental
period, as determined from the analyses of the pre-instruc-
tion recording data. The t_ value of .9725 for overall
conducting ability at the end of the experiment did not
attain the required 2.01. Therefore, the null hypothesis
was accepted.
62
TABLE VII
MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCE, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND l VALUE OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP ON THE POST-INSTRUCTION VIDEOTAPE RECORDING
Group Mean Mean Difference
S .D . _t
Control 26.4833 6.2606 1.6804 .9725
Experimenta1 28. 1637 5.4283
S ummary
The reliability of the adjudicators' evaluations was
validated. This permitted the analysis of the data with the
following results:
1. The Experimental and Control groups were statisti-
cally equal in conducting ability at the beginning of the
experimental period.
2. No statistically significant results were obtained
from the po s t-i n s t ru ct. i on evaluations. Therefore, all ten of
the null hypotheses were accepted.
3. The results favored the Experimental group in nine
out of the ten areas evaluated. In only one area, cueing,
did the results favor the Control group with a t_ of -.0606.
Chapter V contains a summary of the study, the conclu-
sions reached as a result of the analysis of the data, and
63
recommendations for further experimentation. In addition,
difficulties involved in videotaping fluorographic studies
are presented.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
Siegel, Sidney, Nonparametri c Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1956, pp. 229-233.
64
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summa ry
The purpose of this study was to determine the effective-
ness of instant replay television as a method for teaching
certain physical aspects of choral conducting. This necessi-
tated the establishment of an experimental situation involving
two matched groups.
The forty-eight subjects involved in the experiment were
students regularly enrolled in Music 381, Beginning Conducting,
at North Texas State University in the fall semester of 1967.
These subjects were randomly assigned (sopranos) or equated
(altos, tenors, and bass) into two groups, Experimental and
Control. The Experimental group was selected by the flip of
a coin.
The two groups met together for two class periods of
instruction in the basic conducting techniques of preparatory
beat, the three beat pattern, and the cut-off. At the con-
clusion of the introductory instruction, all subjects were
recorded on videotape conducting "America."
For the ensuing ten weeks the Experimental and Control
groups met separately on alternating Tuesdays and Thursdays.
65
66
The two groups met together on Saturday for lecture and
demonstration to assure uniformity of instruction. The only
difference in instruction between the groups during the ex-
perimental period was the addition of instant replay tele-
vision recording and viewing with the Experimental group.
At the conclusion of the experimental period all subjects
were videotaped as they conducted one of three compositions
that had been assigned for preparation. The specific composi-
tion each subject was to conduct was not revealed until
immediately prior to the post-instruct ion recording.
Three competent adjudicators met to view and evaluate the
pre- and post-instruction videotape recordings of all forty-
eight subjects. The results of their evaluations were computer
tested with the t_ test for the significance of the difference
between the means of the two groups, and the results were then
analyzed.
The level of significance for all areas of evaluation was
set. at .05. A _t value of 2.01 was required to be significant
at that level. None of the obtained _t values reached a level
of statistical significance although the findings favored the
Experimental group in all but one area.
Conclusions
Although no statistically significant _t score was
achieved, several encouraging results were noted.
6 7
1. T h e r e s u l t s f a v o r e d the E x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p in n i n e
of the ten e v a l u a t i o n s . T h e t_ s c o r e s for t h o s e a r e a s r a n g e d
f r o m .2661 to 1 . 5 5 1 6 . C e r t a i n l y such c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s ,
a c h i e v e d in s p i t e of the w e a k n e s s e s of the s t u d y w h i c h w i l l
be cited l a t e r , i n d i c a t e that i n s t a n t r e p l a y t e l e v i s i o n as a
m e t h o d for t e a c h i n g the p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of c o n d u c t i n g s h o u l d
be h i g h l y r e g a r d e d .
2. In the area of c u e i n g , the o n l y area w h e r e the
r e s u l t s f a v o r e d the C o n t r o l g r o u p , the _t s c o r e of - . 0 6 0 6
i n d i c a t e d that t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the two
g r o u p s .
3. F o u r of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t areas of c o n d u c t i n g
a c h i e v e d t h e h i g h e s t _t s c o r e s . T h o s e areas w e r e
a. p r e p a r a t o r y b e a t ,
b» b a s i c beat m o v e m e n t ,
c . d y n a m .1 c i n d i c a t i o n ,
d. c u t - o f f s .
S e v e r a l of the a r e a s a c h i e v e d e i t h e r a h i g h e r or l o w e r
_t s c o r e than e x p e c t e d . T h o s e areas and the p r o b a b l e cause
for the u n e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s w e r e the f o l l o w i n g :
C u e i n g . - - T h e a b s e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s
in t h i s area can p r o b a b l y be a t t r i b u t e d to the s h o r t a g e of
c u e i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s in two of the p o s t - i n s t r u c t i o n c o m p o s i -
t i o n s . O n l y the " A v e V e r u m " s t r e s s e d this a r e a .
68
2* Posture.--Prior to the experiment the investigator
believed that this area v.ould benefit .greatly from the use
of instant replay television. The fact that there was no
greater difference between groups than that obtained was
probably due to the fact that there were very few posture
problems to contend with among the subjects.
.3* Attention to mus i cal detail.--In this area the in-
structor and the investigator did not expect any difference
to be manifest. It was not expected that this area could be
taught, visualized, or evaluated on television because of the
multitude of factors involved. The fact that the t score
reached as high a level as it did could be indicative of
some value of the equipment not yet realized.
Several factors in the experimental design, and in the
experiment itself, could conceivably have had a detrimental
effect on the results obtained. Those factors were as
follows:
Choice of pre-inst ruction coinpo s i t i on . - -It was orig-
inally believed that "America" would be appropriate because
of the students' familiarity with the text and music. It is
now believed that this very familiarity allowed the students
to appear more competent than they actually were, particularly
in the.area of facial communication. As a result, the
observable range of difference between the pre- and post-
instruction tape recordings was considerably diminished.
69
2» Length of s t u d y . — T h e ten week experimental period
was not long enough to allow each student member of the
Experimental group more than one appearance before the camera.
It is believed that an experimental period lasting an entire
semester would increase the observed difference between the
groups and produce significant results.
3* Design of evaluation i n s t r u m e n t . — I t is possible
that a built-in bias was provided for the judges by putting
the evaluation of the pre- and post-instruction recordings on
the same page.. Allowing the judges ready reference to the
s.cores they assigned to the p re-in s t rue t i on videotape record-
ings could conceivably have influenced the scores they assigned
to the post-instruction recording.
Use of equipment.--During the experimental class
periods the instant replay television equipment was frequently
idle while the instructor lectured or conducted. The worth of
a new teaching aid can not be evaluated without using it to
the fullest extent of its capabilities. It is believed that
full utilization of the equipment would have produced a
greater difference between the two groups in favor of the
experimental group.
Had these four difficulties not existed the possibility
of achieving significant results would have been greatly en-
hanced.
Without exception, every participant in the experiment
was enthusiastic about the possibilities in using instant
70
replay television to teach the physical aspects of conducting,
Statements made by members of the Experimental and Control
groups, the instructor, and the adjudicators are given below.
These statements are typical of the reactions of the partici-
pants and are not at all unusual or exceptional,
1. "Now I can see what he has been trying to tell me
for the past two months" (4).
2. "It was very helpful. I just wish I could have used
it more often" (6).
3. "It [instant replay television] is not the answer to
all the problems of teaching conducting, but I can see the
improvement in the students that are using it" (8).
4. "I wish I had equipment like this, I can see so
many ways to get a point across to a student" (5).
5. "It's a terrific project [using television to teach
conducting] and a heck of a lot better and more useful for
the future than a hundred projects on bad Renaissance com-
posers whose music should have been left undiscovered" (2).
6. "I'lL be glad when I don't have to share the equipment
with the athletic department and can use it more often" (7).
Recommendations
It is recommended that a replication of this study be
done. Any delving into ari unknown (determining the value of
a new teaching aid) involves preparation for many unforesee-
able circumstances conducive to misjudgment, as in the errors
of design previously cited. However, the lessons learned are
71
valuable as they help to provide guidelines for future experi-
mentation. It is hoped that others will undertake an exten-
sion of this study.
In addition to conducting, many other uses of instant
replay television in music education became apparent during
this experiment. The investigator was able to use instant
replay television in many areas of applied music, any of
which could be the source of another study. Listed below
are those areas with some comment about the usefulness of
videotaping to each area.
1• Opera workshop.--The instant replay aspect of video-
taping was particularly useful for early staging rehearsals.
"One rehearsal with videotape is the equivalent of ten with-
out it" (3). Final performances could be taped for possible
telecasting by a commercial or educational television station
In this instance a commercial size recorder should be used.
Vocal p e d a g o g y . — I n s t a n t replay television gave
ample opportunity to evaluate, criticize, and discuss re-
medial measures involved in teaching voice. The zoom lens,
supplemented by additional lighting, permitted ultra close-up
pictures which readily revealed vowel and consonant forma-
tion, including the development of unwanted diphthongs. This
was particularly apparent in slow motion. The recorder used
in this experiment was not equipped with this feature but it
was possible to simulate it by manually rotating the take-up
reel at a slow rate of speed.
72
3. String teaching,--Slow motion proved to be partic-
ularly helpful in teaching bowing and finger technique.
4- Piano.--Here too, slow motion was helpful in teaching
fingering.
5 * Perfo rmance.--In all areas of applied music, video-
taping of performances proved helpful in evaluating stage
presence, interpretation, and the communication of a performer
with his audience. Further, it graphically illustrated any
mannerisms that could prove distracting to an audience.
6. Video fluorographic studies.--There have been several
studies which have utilized moving picture cameras and projec-
tors in association with x-ray investigations. This usually
entailed the difficult task of synchronizing sound with the
x-ray film. By using a videotape recorder, connected directly
to the video camera mounted in the x-ray equipment, all syn-
chronizing and processing can be avoided. A second advantage,
and a very important one, is that the x-ray equipment can be
operated at a much lower power level. This exposes the sub-
ject to far less radiation and further reduces the already
minimal chance for over-exposure. The same factor also
extends the length of time a subject can remain under x-ray
(1) .
The only difficulty in fluorographic videotaping is that,
two different monitors are required for the playback. Regular
television cameras transmit, and monitors show, 525 lines of
73
resolution. X-ray cameras and monitors use the 875" lines of
resolution common in Europe. The greater the number of lines
of resolution,the higher the fidelity of the picture. Video-
tapes made with a 525 line camera can not be viewed on an 875
line monitor. The reverse is also true. The solution is to
have one or more monitors of each type connected in tandem.
Then, when a videotape is played which was recorded with both
875 and 525 cameras, each monitor will selectively show the
part of the recording with which it is compatible. The
recorder itself is not selective. Any recorder will record
on the video tape as much of what it receives as it is capable
of recording. The recorder used in this experiment has a
capability of 350 lines of re so lution, and yet it capably
recorded the output of both the 525 and the 875 line cameras.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Finlay, Alexander, radiologist, a statement made March 16,
1968.
2. Hines, Robert, experiment adjudicator, a statement from a letter dated December 23, 1967.
3. Kerne, Donald, opera workshop director, North Texas State University, a statement made April 19, 1968.
4. McLeod, Charles, student member of the Control group, a
statement made January 6, 1968.
5. Moe, Daniel, experiment adjudicator, a statement made December 21, 1967.
6. Nagid, David, student member of the Experimental group, a statement made January 13, 1968.
7. Pfautsch, Lloyd, experiment adjudicator, a statement made December 2 1 , 1 9 6 7 .
8. Roe, Paul, conducting teacher, a statement made November 15, 1967.
74
APPENDIX A / b
a Dd o o
w
1 2 <
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w *o
m 4~i
U "+-I y n (» d
W (3 U
H ̂ 00 tc
® -g c3 di a;
*w 5C
&o a
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•u <D a> m <y T3 cti <u <y J2
<y <u « a <u J3 o
0) C8
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<U o 0 QJ M Q)
•H P
EVALUATION INSTRUMENT
APPENDIX B
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CONDUCTING ABILITY
1 • Preparatory Beat
a. The preparatory beat must be commanding and authori-tative, nearly always using both hands.
b. Speed or tempo of the preparatory beat must be con-sistent with the beginning tempo of the composition.
c. Magnitude or size of the beat should be indicative of the volume or amount of sound desired.
d. The preparatory beat should be in contrary motion to the entrance beat.
e. The conductor should breathe with the ensemble.
2 . Basic Beat Movement
a. The beat will usually flow and curve rather than appear as angular.
b. The ictus should be precise and not below the waist. c. Wrist movement should be neither rigid nor limp but
have a fluid movement which indicates strength. d. Deviation from the prescribed pattern may be made if
the music indicates the necessity for such deviation, e. Elbows should be kept fairly close to the body.
3. Dynamic Indication
a. Generally shown in the left hand: palm down and lowering for a deerescendo; palm up and rising for a crescendo. This should be coupled with the appro-priate magnitude of beat; large for loud, small for soft.
b. On a fermata, both.hands may be used and can be accentuated by a slight body movement in a rising direction.
4. Cueing
a. Simply the pointing of' a hand or a finger toward the individual or section to be cued. Usually the hand closest to the section will be used.
77
b. Eye contact with the individual or section accom-panied by a nod at the appropriate time.
5 . Independence o f Hands
a. The left hand should not consistently be a mirrored image of the right hand.
b. The left hand is used to call attention to anything that occurs in the music that is out of the ordinary.
c. Hands should usually be used together when special emphasis is needed for accents, abrupt tempo changes, crescendos, decrescendos, ritards, or fermatas.
d. When using both hands together they should generally move in opposite directions. However, for a very broad powerful effect, both hands may be used in a sweeping parallei motion.
6. Cut-offs
a. To attain precision, the cut-off should be as well prepared for as an attack.
b. In holding a fermata, the hand should rise slightly until the motion is made for the release.
c. The cut-off should be made quickly in a down and curving movement which stops abruptly for cessation of sound. The hands must not move again until the director desires to go on to the next phrase or drops his arms to indicate the conclusion of the composition.
7• Use of Face and Eyes
a. The conductor must have eye contact with the choir in order to assure that their eyes are on him.
b. Facial expression should reflect the mood or character of the music and communicate the conductor's feelings so the chorus knows much of what he wants from them.
8. Pos ture
a. The conductor should use a singing posture with expan-ded ribs, relaxed shoulders, and his weight balanced on the balls of his feet.
b. The conductor should avoid excessive bending of his waist and excessive movement of the head, torso, knees, or feet.
9. Attention to Musical Detail
a. This area is the consurnation of the conductor's entire training and background including style, performing practices, musical signs, rehearsal techniques, notation, intonation, and diction.
APPENDIX C
COST OF EQUIPMENT USED IN THE EXPERIMENT
Item Cost
1. Ampex Videotape Recorder, Model VR 7000 $ 3,150.00
2. Universal Magnetics Video Camera, VF 700 1,995.00
3. One Canon TV 16 Zoom Lens 400.00
4. Sampson Quick-set Tripod, Light Duty 150.00
• 5. Two Setche11-Car1son 23" Monitors @ $195.00 390.00
6. Two Electro-Voice Microphones Model 676 $60.00
Model 647A, Lapel $49.00 109.00
7. McMartin LX 40 Audio Mixer Preamplifier 240.00
8. Two One-hour Video Tapes @ 59.00* 118.00
9. Television C a b l e ® .056 per foot 4.25
10. Connectors 9.00
Total Expenditure $ 6,565.25
*Add i t iona1 tapes used in the study were purchased through another grant and were not part of the original expenditure
78
APPENDIX D
ORDER OF RECORDING AND VIEWING, GROUP MEMBERSHIP, THE RAW SCORE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE-
AND POST-INSTRUCTION RECORDING
AND
Diff.Between Diff.Between Tape No. Group Tapes Tape No. Group Tapes
1 c: .34 2.5 C .67 2 E -1.33 26 C 2.33 3 E 8.67 27 E 17.67 4 E 11.33 28 E 1.00 5 E 5 .00 '29 E 4 .00
6 C 4.33 30 C -.67 7 E 10.33 31 E 12.34 8 E -4.67 32 C 7.00 9 c: 9.33 33 E 8 .67
10 C -2.67 34 C 3.67
11 C 5.33 35 C 9.00 12 C 8.34 36 c 6.00 13 c; 5.67 37 E 7.67 14 E 7.00 38 c 11.00 15 c: 7 .33 39 E 11 .66
16 E 3.67 40 E 8.67 17 E 2.33 41 E 5.00 18 c; 6.33 42 c -.66 19 E 8.33 43 E 4.33 20 C 3.33 44 c 17.67 21 E 4.66 45 C 7.00 22 E 6.00 46 C 1.66 23 E 5.67 47 E 5.33 24 C .00 48 C 3.67
79
APPENDIX E
THE KENDALL COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE
To compute W, first find the sum of ranks, R., in each J
column of a k X N table. Then sum the R- and divide that %)
sum by N to obtain the mean value of R • . Each of the R, J J J
may then be expressed as a deviation from the mean value.
The larger the deviation, the greater is the degree of
association among the k sets of ranks. Finally s, the sum
of squares of these deviations, is found. Knowing these
values, compute the value of W:
W =
J_,2 12 k* (^N3-N ̂
where s = sum of squares of the observed deviations 2
from the mean of Rj, that Kf« *X i s . S = ) I R 4 - -LLI
w \ N / k - the number of judges
N = the number of individuals ranked
_ L k 2 ̂ n3-nJ the maximum possible sum of the squared
deviations, that is, the sum s which would
occur with perfect agreement among k rankings
80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Hilgard, Ernest R., Theories of Learning, New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Incorporated, 1956.
S i e g e 1, Sidney, No npa rame t r i c Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences , New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1956.
S tandard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and WagnalIs, 1963.
Article s
Bretz, Rudy, "Low-Cost Video Tape Recordings, AV Tool or Medium," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 948-951.
Broyles, Glenwood E., "Learning Models for Television: Improving the Program Content," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 917-920.
"Closed Circuit Television in Public Schools," Music Educators Journal , LIV (October, 1967), 38.
Culver, Katherine B., "New and Promising Uses of ITV," Audio-visual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 910-914.
Cyphert, Frederick R., and L. 0. Andrews, "Using the Video-taper in Teacher Education," Audiovisual Instruction, LV (December, 1967), 1069-1070.
Daellenbach, Charles, "Videotape Recorders at Eastman," The Instrumentali st, XXI (May, 1967), 26-28.
Follis, Lee, "TV Taping: A Rewarding and Remarkable Departure," Educational Screen and AV Guide, XLIV (May-June, 1965), 17, 19.
Frank, Jack B,, "Teaching a Freshman Music Course on Tele-vision: A Case History," Audiovisual Instruction, XI (February, 1966), 103-105.
81
82
"Growth of Educational Television/' School and Society, VC (January, 1967), 28.
Johnson, Rita B., "The Effect of Prompting, Practice and Feedback in Programmed Videotape," American Educat iona1 Research Journal, V (January, 1968), 73-79.
Lapham, Harry R., "Avoiding Common Pitfalls in the Planning of a Practical Instructional Television System," Audiov i sua 1 Instruction , XII (November, 1967), 939-943.
McDaniel, Ernest, and William K, Filiatreau, "A Comparison of Television and Conventional Instruction as Determinants of Attitude Change," Thje Journal of Educational Research, LVIII (October, 1965),"76-79.
Miles, James S., "Purdue's Television Unit," Audiovisual Instruction, X (September, 1965), 558-559.
Nasca, Don, "Science Recall and Closed Circuit Instruction," The Journal o f Educational Research, LIX (October, 1966), 76-79. '
Popham, W. James, "Instructional Video Tapes in Teacher Educat ion ," AV Communication Review, XIV (Fall, 1966), 371-376. ' ~
Richardson, Elinor, "Inquiry in Instructional Television: A Pilot Project," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 915-916.
Smith, Fred R., "The Keys to a Reefbound Realm," Sports Illustrated, XXVIII (January, 1968), 38.
Speed, R. C., "Videotape for Coaching," Athletic Journal, IIL (September, 1967), 48.
Thorenson, Carl E., "Video in the College Classroom: An Exploratory Study," Personnel and Guidance Journal, VL (October, 1966), 144-149.
Tobias, Sigmund, "Dimensions of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Instructional Media," American Educational Research Journal t V (January, 1967), 91-98.
"Videotape at Eastman," Music Educator's Journal, LIV (November, 1967), 27.
Weber, Morris, "What Went Wrong?" Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 937-938.
83
Publications of Learned Organizations
Bodegraven, Paul Van, Music Education Source Book, Chicago, Music Educators National Conference, 1949.
Teacher Contract, Loyola University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1968.
Wooten, Jean B., "The Delmarva Educational Television Project," MENC Source Book III, Perspectives In Music Education, Washington, D. C., Music Educators National Conference, 1966.
Unpublished Materials
Dahlin, Walter Odell, "The Relationship Between the Conducting Needs of School Music Teachers and Present Practices in the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1951.
Ecker, Richard, "A Developmental Approach to the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1950.
Matthews, Glen, "An Analysis and Evaluation of Methods for Training Skills in School Music Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 1963.
Rasmussen, Warren Irvin, "An Investigation and Evaluation of Undergraduate Courses in Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Northwestern University, Evans ton, Illinois, ]955.
Newspapers
The Dallas Morning News, January 14, 1968, Section D, p. 1.
The Dallas Morning News, March 30, 1968, Section D, p. 4,
Denton (Texas) Record-Chronicle. February 22, 196b, p. 10.
Denver Post , June 30, 1967, Section B, p. 2.
84
S t a t e me nts
Conner, Terry E., Vice-president of Universal Magnetics Incorporated, Dallas, Texas, a statement made in Dallas March, 1,968.
Finlay, Alexander, radiologist, a statement made in Denton, Texas, March 16, 1968.
Hines, Robert, experiment • adjudicator, a statement from a letter dated March 23, 1968.
Kerne, Donald, opera workshop director, North Texas State University, a statement made April 19, 1968.
McLeod, Charles, student member of the Control group, a statement made January 6, 1968.
Moe, Daniel, experiment adjudicator, a statement made in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.
Nagid, David, student member of the Experimental group, a statement made January 13, 1968.
Pfautsch, Lloyd, experiment adjudicator, a statement made in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.
Roe, Paul, conducting teacher, a statement made November 15, 1967.