© Digital Integrated Circuits 2nd Interconnect Impact of Interconnect Parasitics Reduce Robustness...

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Interconnect

Impact of Interconnect ParasiticsImpact of Interconnect Parasitics

• Reduce Robustness

• Affect Performance• Increase delay• Increase power dissipation

Classes of Parasitics

• Capacitive

• Resistive

• Inductive


INTERCONNECTINTERCONNECT


Capacitive Cross TalkCapacitive Cross TalkDynamic NodeDynamic Node

3 x 1 m overlap: 0.19 V disturbance

CY

CXY

VDD

PDN

CLK

CLK

In1

In2

In3

Y

X

2.5 V

0 V


Capacitive Cross TalkCapacitive Cross TalkDriven NodeDriven Node

XY = RY(CXY+CY)

Keep time-constant smaller than rise time

V (Volt)

0

0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

010.80.6

t (nsec)

0.40.2

X

YVXRY

CXY

CY

tr↑


Dealing with Capacitive Cross Dealing with Capacitive Cross TalkTalk

Avoid floating nodes Protect sensitive nodes Make rise and fall times as large as possible Differential signaling Do not run wires together for a long distance Use shielding wires Use shielding layers


ShieldingShielding

GND

GND

Shieldingwire

Substrate (GND )

Shieldinglayer

VDD


Cross Talk and PerformanceCross Talk and Performance

Cc

- When neighboring lines switch in opposite direction of victim line, delay increases

DELAY DEPENDENT UPON ACTIVITY IN NEIGHBORING WIRES

Miller EffectMiller Effect

- Both terminals of capacitor are switched in opposite directions (0 Vdd, Vdd 0)

- Effective voltage is doubled and additional charge is needed (from Q=CV)


Impact of Cross Talk on Delay Impact of Cross Talk on Delay

r is ratio between capacitance to GND and to neighbor


Structured Predictable InterconnectStructured Predictable Interconnect

S

S SV V S

G

S

SV

G

VS

S SV V S

G

S

SV

G

VExample: Dense Wire Fabric ([Sunil Kathri])Trade-off:• Cross-coupling capacitance 40x lower, 2% delay variation• Increase in area and overall capacitance Also: FPGAs, VPGAs


Interconnect ProjectionsInterconnect ProjectionsLow-k dielectricsLow-k dielectrics

Both delay and power are reduced by dropping interconnect capacitance

Types of low-k materials include: inorganic (SiO2), organic (Polyimides) and aerogels (ultra low-k)

The numbers below are on the conservative side of the NRTS roadmap


Encoding Data Avoids Worst-CaseEncoding Data Avoids Worst-CaseConditionsConditions

Encoder

Decoder

Bus

In

Out


Driving Large CapacitancesDriving Large Capacitances

V in Vout

CL

VDD

• Transistor Sizing• Cascaded Buffers


Using Cascaded BuffersUsing Cascaded Buffers

CL = 20 pF

In Out

1 2 N

0.25 m processCin = 2.5 fFtp0 = 30 ps

F = CL/Cin = 8000fopt = 3.6 N = 7tp = 0.76 ns

(See Chapter 5)


Output Driver DesignOutput Driver Design

Trade off Performance for Area and Energy

Given tpmax find N and f Area

Energy

minminmin12

1

1

1

1...1 A

f

FA

f

fAfffA

NN

driver

22212

11

1...1 DD

LDDiDDi

Ndriver V

f

CVC

f

FVCfffE


Delay as a Function of F and NDelay as a Function of F and N

101 3 5 7

Number of buffer stages N

9 11

10,000

1000

100tp/tp0

F = 100F = 1000

F = 10,000t p

/tp

0


Output Driver DesignOutput Driver Design

Transistor Sizes for optimally-sized cascaded buffer tp = 0.76 ns

Transistor Sizes of redesigned cascaded buffer tp = 1.8 ns

0.25 m process, CL = 20 pF


How to Design Large TransistorsHow to Design Large Transistors

G(ate)

S(ource)

D(rain)

Multiple

Contacts

small transistors in parallel

Reduces diffusion capacitanceReduces gate resistance


Bonding Pad DesignBonding Pad DesignBonding Pad

Out

InVDD GND

100 m

GND

Out


ESD ProtectionESD Protection

When a chip is connected to a board, there is unknown (potentially large) static voltage difference

Equalizing potentials requires (large) charge flow through the pads

Diodes sink this charge into the substrate – need guard rings to pick it up.


ESD ProtectionESD Protection

Diode


Pad FramePad Frame

Layout Die Photo


Chip PackagingChip Packaging An alternative is ‘flip-chip’:

Pads are distributed around the chip The soldering balls are placed on pads The chip is ‘flipped’ onto the package Can have many more pads


Tristate BuffersTristate Buffers

InEn

En

VDD

Out

Out = In.En + Z.En

VDD

In

En

En

Out

Increased output drive


Reducing the swingReducing the swing

tpHL = CL Vswing/2

Iav

Reducing the swing potentially yields linear reduction in delay Also results in reduction in power dissipation Delay penalty is paid by the receiver Requires use of “sense amplifier” to restore signal level Frequently designed differentially (e.g. LVDS)


Single-Ended Static Driver and Single-Ended Static Driver and ReceiverReceiver

CL

VDD

VDD VDD

driver receiver

VDDL

VDDLIn

OutOut


Impact of ResistanceImpact of Resistance

We have already learned how to drive RC interconnect

Impact of resistance is commonly seen in power supply distribution: IR drop Voltage variations

Power supply is distributed to minimize the IR drop and the change in current due to switching of gates

© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Interconnect19

ASP DAC 2000

Power Dissipation TrendsPower Dissipation Trends

Power consumption is increasingPower consumption is increasing Better cooling technology neededBetter cooling technology needed

Supply current is increasing faster!Supply current is increasing faster!

OnOn--chip signal integrity will be a major chip signal integrity will be a major issueissue

Power and current distribution are criticalPower and current distribution are critical

Opportunities to slow power growthOpportunities to slow power growth Accelerate Accelerate VddVdd scalingscaling

Low κ dielectrics & thinner (Cu) Low κ dielectrics & thinner (Cu) interconnectinterconnect

SOI circuit innovations SOI circuit innovations

Clock system designClock system design

micromicro--architecturearchitecture

Power Dissipation

020406080

100120140160

EV4 EV5 EV6 EV7 EV8

Po

we

r (W

)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Vol

tage

(V

)

Supply Current

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

EV4 EV5 EV6 EV7 EV8

Curr

ent (

A)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Vo

ltag

e (

V)


Resistance and the Power Resistance and the Power Distribution ProblemDistribution Problem

Source: Cadence

• Requires fast and accurate peak current predictionRequires fast and accurate peak current prediction• Heavily influenced by packaging technologyHeavily influenced by packaging technology

BeforeBefore AfterAfter


Power DistributionPower Distribution

Low-level distribution is in Metal 1 Power has to be ‘strapped’ in higher layers of

metal. The spacing is set by IR drop,

electromigration, inductive effects Always use multiple contacts on straps


Power and Ground DistributionPower and Ground Distribution

GND

VDD

Logic

GND

VDD

Logic

GND

VDD

(a) Finger-shaped network (b) Network with multiple supply pins


3 Metal Layer Approach (EV4)3 Metal Layer Approach (EV4)3rd “coarse and thick” metal layer added to the

technology for EV4 designPower supplied from two sides of the die via 3rd metal layer

2nd metal layer used to form power grid

90% of 3rd metal layer used for power/clock routing

Metal 3

Metal 2

Metal 1

Courtesy Compaq


4 Metal Layers Approach (EV5)4 Metal Layers Approach (EV5)4th “coarse and thick” metal layer added to the

technology for EV5 designPower supplied from four sides of the die

Grid strapping done all in coarse metal

90% of 3rd and 4th metals used for power/clock routing

Metal 3

Metal 2

Metal 1

Metal 4

Courtesy Compaq


2 reference plane metal layers added to thetechnology for EV6 designSolid planes dedicated to Vdd/Vss

Significantly lowers resistance of gridLowers on-chip inductance

6 Metal Layer Approach – EV66 Metal Layer Approach – EV6

Metal 4

Metal 2Metal 1

RP2/Vdd

RP1/Vss

Metal 3

Courtesy Compaq


Electromigration (1)Electromigration (1)

Limits dc-current to 1 mA/m


Electromigration (2)Electromigration (2)


Resistivity and PerformanceResistivity and Performance

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 50

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

time (nsec)

volta

ge

(V

)

x= L/10

x = L/4

x = L/2

x= L

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 50

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

time (nsec)

volta

ge

(V

)

x= L/10

x = L/4

x = L/2

x= L

Diffused signal Diffused signal propagationpropagation

Delay ~ LDelay ~ L22

CN-1 CNC2

R1 R2

C1

Tr

Vin

RN-1 RN

The distributed rc-lineThe distributed rc-line


The Global Wire ProblemThe Global Wire Problem

Challenges No further improvements to be expected after the

introduction of Copper (superconducting, optical?) Design solutions

Use of fat wires Insert repeaters — but might become prohibitive (power, area) Efficient chip floorplanning

Towards “communication-based” design How to deal with latency? Is synchronicity an absolute necessity?

outwwdoutdwwd CRCRCRCRT 693.0377.0


Interconnect Projections: CopperInterconnect Projections: Copper

Copper is planned in full sub-0.25 m process flows and large-scale designs (IBM, Motorola, IEDM97)

With cladding and other effects, Cu ~ 2.2 -cm vs. 3.5 for Al(Cu) 40% reduction in resistance

Electromigration improvement; 100X longer lifetime (IBM, IEDM97) Electromigration is a limiting factor

beyond 0.18 m if Al is used (HP, IEDM95)

Vias


Interconnect:Interconnect:# of Wiring Layers# of Wiring Layers

# of metal layers is steadily increasing due to:

• Increasing die size and device count: we need more wires and longer wires to connect everything

• Rising need for a hierarchical wiring network; local wires with high density and global wires with low RC

substrate

poly

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

Tins

H

WS

= 2.2 -cm

0.25 m wiring stack

Minimum Widths (Relative)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

M5

M4

M3

M2

M1

Poly

Minimum Spacing (Relative)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

M5

M4

M3

M2

M1

Poly


Diagonal WiringDiagonal Wiring

y

x

destination

Manhattan

source

diagonal

• 20+% Interconnect length reduction• Clock speed Signal integrity Power integrity • 15+% Smaller chips plus 30+% via reduction

Courtesy Cadence X-initiative


Using BypassesUsing Bypasses

DriverPolysilicon word line

Polysilicon word line

Metal word line

Metal bypass

Driving a word line from both sides

Using a metal bypass

WL

WL K cells


Reducing RC-delayReducing RC-delay

Repeater

(chapter 5)


Repeater Insertion (Revisited)Repeater Insertion (Revisited)

Taking the repeater loading into account

For a given technology and a given interconnect layer, there exists For a given technology and a given interconnect layer, there exists an optimal length of the wire segments between repeaters. The an optimal length of the wire segments between repeaters. The delay of these wire segments is delay of these wire segments is independent of the routing layer!independent of the routing layer!


L di/dtL di/dt

Impact of inductance on supply voltages:• Change in current induces a change in voltage• Longer supply lines have larger LCL

V’DD

VDD

L i(t)

VoutVin

GND’

L


L di/dt: SimulationL di/dt: Simulation

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5V

out (

V)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.02

0.04

i L (A

)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.5

1

VL (

V)

time (nsec)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.02

0.04

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x 10-9

0

0.5

1

time (nsec)

Input rise/fall time: 50 psec Input rise/fall time: 800 psec

decoupled

Without inductorsWith inductors


Dealing with Ldi/dtDealing with Ldi/dt

Separate power pins for I/O pads and chip core. Multiple power and ground pins. Careful selection of the positions of the power

and ground pins on the package. Increase the rise and fall times of the off-chip

signals to the maximum extent allowable. Schedule current-consuming transitions. Use advanced packaging technologies. Add decoupling capacitances on the board. Add decoupling capacitances on the chip.


De-coupling Capacitor RatiosDe-coupling Capacitor Ratios

EV4 total effective switching capacitance = 12.5nF 128nF of de-coupling capacitance de-coupling/switching capacitance ~ 10x

EV5 13.9nF of switching capacitance 160nF of de-coupling capacitance

EV6 34nF of effective switching capacitance 320nF of de-coupling capacitance -- not enough!

Source: B. Herrick (Compaq)


EV6 De-coupling CapacitanceEV6 De-coupling CapacitanceDesign for Idd= 25 A @ Vdd = 2.2 V, f = 600

MHz 0.32-µF of on-chip de-coupling capacitance was

added– Under major busses and around major gridded clock

drivers– Occupies 15-20% of die area

1-µF 2-cm2 Wirebond Attached Chip Capacitor (WACC) significantly increases “Near-Chip” de-coupling

– 160 Vdd/Vss bondwire pairs on the WACC minimize inductance



EV6 WACCEV6 WACC

587 IPGA

MicroprocessorWACC

Heat Slug

389 Signal - 198 VDD/VSS Pins389 Signal Bondwires

395 VDD/VSS Bondwires

320 VDD/VSS Bondwires



The Transmission LineThe Transmission Line

The Wave Equation

V in Voutr

g c

r r x

g c

r

g c g c

l l l l


Design Rules of ThumbDesign Rules of Thumb

Transmission line effects should be considered when the rise or fall time of the input signal (tr, tf) is smaller than the time-of-flight of the transmission line (tflight).

tr (tf) << 2.5 tflight Transmission line effects should only be considered when the

total resistance of the wire is limited:R < 5 Z0

The transmission line is considered lossless when the total resistance is substantially smaller than the characteristic impedance,

R < Z0/2


Should we be worried?Should we be worried?

Transmission line effects cause overshooting and non-monotonic behavior

Clock signals in 400 MHz IBM Microprocessor(measured using e-beam prober) [Restle98]


Matched TerminationMatched Termination

Z 0 Z L

Z0

Series Source Termination

Z 0 Z 0

Z S

Parallel Destination Termination


Output Driver with Varying Output Driver with Varying TerminationsTerminations

Vout (V)

Vout (V)

1 2 3 4

time (sec)

Revised design with matched driver impedance

Vs

Vd

Vin

5 6 7 80

1

0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4

Initial design

Vs

Vd

Vin

5 6 7 80

1

0

1

2

3

4

V in

L= 2.5 nH

VDD

V s V d

V DD

ClampingDiodes

CL= 5 pF CL

L = 2.5 nH

L = 2.5 nH Z 0 = 50

275

120


The “Network-on-a-Chip”The “Network-on-a-Chip”

EmbeddedProcessorsEmbeddedProcessors

MemorySub-system

MemorySub-system

AccelatorsAccelatorsConfigurableAcceleratorsConfigurableAccelerators

PeripheralsPeripherals

Interconnect Backplane

© Digital Integrated Circuits 2nd Interconnect Impact of Interconnect Parasitics Reduce Robustness...

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