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Transcript of concepts solve problems make decisions.
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THINKING, LANGUAGE AND INTELLIGENCE
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Thinking Is Usually Referred to As Cognition.
concepts solve problems make decisions.
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Concepts are the mental groupings by which we
put together similar objects, events and
people.
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Without Concepts We Would Need a Different Name for Every Object
and Idea.
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Human Beings Organize Concepts Into Hierarchies.
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IMAGESMental representations of some
sense experiences
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We think by using images
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We Tend to Form Concepts by Developing Prototypes.
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Prototypes Allow Us to Develop Concepts and
Ideas From Which We Make Interpretations.
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PROBLEM SOLVING
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What is problem solving?
What must be done to achieve a goal not readily attainable.
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The way we represent a problem determines if we
can solve it
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There are three steps involved in problem
solving 1. interpretation 2. strategy 3. evaluation
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There are four ways to solve problems:
Trial and error Information retrieval algorithms heuristics
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Trial and error
Trying out solutions one after the other until one works.
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INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Retrieving from long term memory
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An algorithm is a step by step procedure which
guarantees a solution if it is appropriate for the problem and can be
carried out
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HEURISTICS ARE RULE OF THUMB STRATEGIES THAT ALLOW US TO MAKE QUICK DECISIONS, BUT DO NOT GUARANTEE A SOLUTION
.
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Other heuristic strategies
Means-ends analysis – combining hill climbing and sub goals
Working backwards
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There are three types of problems:
Problems of inducing structure Problems of arrangement Problems of transformation
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Problems of inducing structure
discover the relationship between the parts of a problems
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Problems of arrangement
arranging the parts of a problem to satisfy some criteria.
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Problems of transformation
carrying out a sequence of transformation in order to reach a specific goal. Tend to be solved in a planned sequence
of steps rather then insight.
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Creativity and Problem Solving
Creativity Ability to generate original ideas or solve
problems in novel ways Divergent thinking
Ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions
Convergent thinking Produces responses that are based primarily on
knowledge and logic Cognitive complexity
Preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns.
NOT related to intelligence24
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
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Sometimes We Cannot Solve Problems for
Several Reasons. They Are:
Confirmation bias Fixation Representitiveness Availability Framing
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Confirmation Bias
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Fixation (a mental set)
This inability to see a fresh perspective. It is tunnel vision.
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Some People Are Functionally Fixated.
The tendency to perceive a function of an object as fixed and unchanging.
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Representitiveness
The tendency to define things in terms of the way we see it.
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Availability
Basing our judgments and decisions on information that we can immediately recall.
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There are some other problems with our thinking, one is overconfidence
The tendency to feel sure about our beliefs and to explain away our failures.
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Overconfidence Makes Us Feel That We Are Correct Most of the Time.
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Framing
Presentation that effects the way we think and solve problems.
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Belief Perseverance
The tendency to cling to our beliefs even in the face of contrary evidence.
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There are several other limitations to problem solving and decision making. They are:
The gamblers fallacy The law of small numbers The conjunction fallacy
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LANGUAGE
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Language is based on units of sounds called
phonemes i.e. t, th, k There are 45 phonemes in the English
language
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Morphemes are combined to create words that represent complex ideas
I.E. PRE-EXIST
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WORDS ARE COMBINED INTO SENTANCES GOVERNED BY RULES CALLED GRAMMAR
Grammar has two components: 1. syntax 2. Semantics
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SYNTAX
Rules that govern how we combine words into meaningful sentences and phrases
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SEMANTICS
DESCRIBES HOW WE ASSIGN MEANING TO MORPHEMES, WORDS AND SENTANCES
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transformations
Knowing the relationships between words of sentences (surface structure) and its underlying meaning
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According to Chomsky to communicate an idea you must do the following:
1. develop a thought 2. choose words 3. produce sounds
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How Does Language Develop?
There are three theories:
Learning theory approach Nativist approach Interactionist approach
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Process of Language Development
Echolalic Language perception – differentiating
sounds to distinguish behaviors Meaning – understanding the
relationship between a word and an action
Integration of language and thought - holophrastic
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CONT.
Language Specificity – One word at a time
Two word sentences Grammatical transformations and three
word sentences
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Does Language Influence Thinking or Thinking Influence Language?
The Whorfian hypothesis says that language precedes thought.
Piaget says thought precedes language.
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INTELLIGENCE
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Major Approaches to Intelligence
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 49
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Sir Francis Galton
Believed wealthy were more intelligent Founded eugenics movement
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Alfred Binet Was commissioned to study why some children were
capable of benefiting from classroom
instruction and others were not.
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Determine a Child’s Mental Age.
To do this they developed questions relative to reasoning and problem solving.
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It Was Binet’s Intention to Use These Tests to Improve
the Child’s Learning Environment.
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Binet had two fears relative to his test.
1. it would limit educational opportunities
2. it would make people incapable of learning.
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Goddard was a disciple of Galton’s eugenics
movement.
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Gave test to newly arrived immigrants at
Ellis Island
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Stanford University Professor Lewis Terman
Decided to Utilize Binet’s Test.
the Stanford-Binet
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William Stern Derived the Famous Intelligence
Quotient or IQ.
Ma/ca * 100.
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IQ’S prove to be problematic in measuring
adult intelligence.
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Intelligence tests no longer use IQ.
It has been replaced by a deviation IQ.
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The Wechsler Intelligence Scale Created by David
Wechsler
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Wechsler's designed three separate tests for:
Preschoolers Adults Children
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Aptitude and Achievement tests
Aptitude tests measure a person’s capacity to learn
Achievement tests measure past learning.
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Achievement test scores increase when students study for them.
This is true of: LSAT MCAT GRE GMAT
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IS INTELLIGENCE ONE ABILITY OR SEVERAL DISTINCT ABILITIES?
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A GENERAL INTELLIGENCE UNDERLYING MOST MENTAL
ABILITIESLouis Thurston
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The Two Current Theories :
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Robert Sternburg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
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GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
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They Are:
Linguistic Musical Mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic
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Theories of Intelligence
70
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Many ways of showing intelligence 8 Different Forms
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
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Support for Gardner’s theory
Brain damage may impair one mental ability It’s rare to find a renaissance man
Prodigies master only one skill Savants demonstrate one exceptional
skill
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STERNBURG’S TRIARCHICTHEORY OF
INTELLIGENCEHe Identified intelligence From Three Different Perspectives
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They Are:
Analytical (componential) – the ability to solve academic problems and judge ideas
Creative (experiential) – insight, creativity, inventiveness
Practical (contextual) – practical knowledge, street smarts
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CAN INTELLIGENCE BE USED TO PREDICT BEHAVIOR?
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In Certain Situations General Intelligence Can Predict Certain Things
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They do measure the ability to take tests
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Intelligence tests tests are also culturally biased
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Is there a relationship between intelligence scores
and success
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Why does Intelligence correlate to academic
achievement Both require the following: Motivation Attention Perseverance Test taking ability
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Is intelligence learned or inherited?
Identical twins raised in different families have similar intelligence scores
Also, adopted children have intelligence scores more similar to their biological mothers
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ENVIRONMENT
Many believe that genes are just a starting point
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Intervention programs: can we boost intelligence?
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Milwaukee project of 1961
Could intervention in a child’s family life effect economic and social deprivation?
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Women were split into two groups
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This study prompted J. Vicker Hunts study on intelligence and experience
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Head start has shown to improve cognitive skills
in children
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GENDER AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
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Are there differences in intellectual abilities between genders and cultures?
1. no differences in verbal abilities 2. Females are better at math in
negligible differences
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Male advantage is in spatial ability
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CONCLUSIONS
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Cognitive differences between males and
females are restricted to specific cognitive skills
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Three Things to Keep in Mind About Intelligence
Tests:
Their concern is to enable schools who might best benefit from early intervention.
Should not be used as absolute measures.
Only reflect one aspect of a person