CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:

Process and Models

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive.

CURRICULUM MODELS FOUR PHASES• 1. CURRICULUM PLANNING considers the school

vision, mission and goals. It also includes one philosophy or strong education belief of the school.

• 2. CURRICULUM DESIGNING is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the selection of the assesment produce and the tools to measure achied learning outcomes.

• 3. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTING in the classroom the classroom setting or learning environment. Implementing the curriculum is where the action takes place. It involves the activities that transpires in every teacher's classroom where learning became an active process.

• 4. CURRICULUM EVALUATING determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved. This procedure is on going as afinding out the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative).

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS MODELS

• 1. RALPH TYLER MODEL: Four basic PrinciplesAlso known as Tyler's Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase. He posted four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following questions:

a) What education purposes should school srrk to attain?

b) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

c) How can these educational experiences be effectively organied?

d) How can we determine whether those purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler's model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made:

1. Purposeful of the school,

2. What educational experiences related to the purposes

3. Organization of the experiences

4. Evaluation of the experiences

HILDA TABA MODEL: Grassroots Approach

Hilda improved on Tyler's model. She believed thet the teachers should participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins from yhe bottom, rather than from the top at what tyler's proposed. She presented seven major steps to her linear model which are the following:

1. Diagnoses of leraners needs and expectations of the larger socieaty.

2. Formulating of learnig objectives

3. Selection of learning contents.

4. Organization of learning contents.

5. Selection of learning experiences.

6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

GALEN SAYLOR and WILLIAM ALEXANDER Curriculum Model

Galen saylor and william Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as a consisting of four steps. Curriculum is a plan providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related learning objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.

Four steps:1. Goals, Objectives and Domains: Curriculum

planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain: continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, views of the different stakeholders.

2. Curriclum designing: Designing of a curriculum follows were appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answred at this stage of development process.

3. Curriculum Implementation: A curriculum design is now ready for implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans were intructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and stratgies are utilized ti achive the desired learning outcomes among students.

4. Evaluation: The last step of curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievements of the students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum developers and palnners can determine whether or not the gaols of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.

LESSON 4 :FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUMEducators, teachers, educational planners and

policy makers must have a philosophy about education and schooling and the kind of curriculm in the teacher's clasrooms or learning environment.

Philosophy of the school answers the following questions like:

What are schools for?What subjects are important?How should

students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved?

Here are some philosophies in education presented by ORNSTEIN and HUNKINS 2004

A. PERRENIALISM• Aim: to educate the rationale person;

cultivate intellect.• Role: Teachers assit students to think

what reason ( critical thinking: HOTS)• Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis.

Curriculum is enduring.• Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran,

Classics) Liberal arts

B. ESSENTIALISM• Aim: to promote intellectual growth of

learners to become competent.• Role: Teachers are soul authorities in the

subject area.• Focus: Essential skills of 3R's; Essentail

subjects• Trends: Back to basics. Excellence in

education. Cultural literacy

C. PROGRESSIVISM

• Aim: Promote democratic social living.• Role: Teacher leads for growth and

development of lifelong learners.• Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-

centered. Outcomes based.• Trends: Equa opportunities for all.

Contextualized curriculum. Humanistic education.

D. RECONSTRUCTIONISM

• Aim: To improve and reconstruct society.• Role: Teachers act as agent of change

and reforms.• Focus: Present and future educational

landscape.• Trends: School and curricular reform.

Global education. Collaboration and convergence. Standards and competencies.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATION

FRANKLIN BOBBIT (1876-1956)

• Started the curriculum development movement.

• Curriculum as a science that emphasize on student's needs.

• Curriculum prepare learners for adult life.

• Objectives and activities grouped together when task are clarified.

WERRET CHARTERS (1875-1952)

• Like Bobbit, curriculum is a science and emphasizes students' needs.

• Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content should relates to objectives.

WILLIAM KLIPARTICK (1875-1952)• Curricula are purposeful

activities which are child-centered.

• The purpose of the curriculum is child develelopment end growth. The project method was introduced by Klipartick and student plan the activties.

• The curriculum develops social relationships and small group instructions.

HAROLD RUGG (1886-1960)

• To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.

• With the statement of the objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.

• Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the teacher plans the curriclum in advance.

HOLLIS CASWELL (1901-1989)

• Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner's interests.

• caswell believes that curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.

• Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learner's interests.

RALPH TYLER (1902-1994)

• As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of scholl's philosophy. It is based on the students' needs and interest.

• To Tyler, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge skills and values.

• The process emphasizes the curriculum aims to educate generalist and not the specialist.

HILDA TABA (1902-1967)

• Contributed the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical in the social studies curriculum.

• Helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

PETER OLIVA (1992-2012)• Described how

curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor

• Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners.

• Significant improvement through group activity.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FONDATION

OF CURRICULUM

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF

CURRICULUM

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

Psychology provides a basis to nderstand the teaching and learning process. It unifies the elementsof the learning process.

3 GROUPS OF LEARNING THEORIESa. behaviorism or association theoriesb. cognitive-information processing theoriesc. humanistic theories

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES

IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)• Father of the Classical

Conditioning Theory the S-R Theory

• The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become.

• S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.

EDWARD THORNDIKE (1874-1949

EDWARD THORNDIKE (1874-1949)

• Championed the Connectionism Theory

• Specific stimulus has specific response

• Proposed the three laws of learning:– Law of readiness– Law of exercise– Law of effect

ROBERT GAGNE (1916-2002)

• Proposed the Hierarchical Theory Learning follows a hierarchy

• Behaviors is based on prerequisite conditions.

• Introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)Theories of Jean Piaget

– Describes cognitive development in terms of stages of birth to maturity.

– Sensorimotor stage(0-2), preoperational stage(2-7), concrete operations stage(7-11), and formal operations(11-onwards)

• Key to learning– Assimilation (incorporation of new

experiences)– Accommodation (learning

modification and adaptation)– Equilibration (balance between

previous and later learning)

LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934)• Theory of Lev Vygotsky

– Cultural transmisson and development

– Children could, as a result of theis interaction which society, actually perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.

– Learning precedes development

– Sociocultural development theory

• Vygotsky's Key to learning–Pedagogy creates

learning process that lead to development

–Child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

HOWARD GARDNER• GARDNER'S MULTIPLE

INTELLIGENCES– Humans have several

different ways of processing informtion and these ways are relatively independent of one another.

– Eight intelligenes: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

DANIEL GOLEMAN

• Emotion contains the poer to affect action.

–Emotional qoutient

HUMANISTIC APPROACH

HUMANISTIC APPROACH GESTALT Gestalt Theory

– -Learning is explained in terms of "wholeness" of the problem.

– -Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but an organization or patten of stimuli.

• Key to learning– Learning is complex and abstract.– Learners analyze the problemm discriminate

between essential and non-essential data, and percieve rerlationships.

– Learners will persive something in relation to the whole. What/how they percieve is related to their previous experiences.

ABRAHAM MOSLOW (1908-1970)– Self-Actualization Theory– Classic theory of human

needs.– A child whose basic

needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.

– Put importance on human emotions, based on love and trust.

• Key to Learning– Produce a healthy and

happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her human self.

CARL ROGERS (1902-1987)• Nondirective and Thearapeutic

Learning• Established counselling

procedures and methods for facilitating learning.

• Children's perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and behavior in class.

• Key to learning • Curriculum concerned with

process, not subject matter, psychological meaning not cognitive scores.

• SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUMSOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF

CURRICULUM

SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

• SHOOLS and SOCIETY

– Society as a source of change– Schools as agents of change– Knowledge as an agent of change

JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

• Considered two fundamental elements- school and civil society- to be the major topics needing attentionand reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.

ALVIN TOFFLER• Wrote the book Future

Shock• Believed that knowledge

should prepare the students for the future.

• Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology, not inspire of it. (home schooling)

• Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age.