© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chapter 12 Chemical Kinetics.

© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chapter 12Chemical Kinetics


Kinetics

• In kinetics we study the rate at which a chemical process occurs.

• Besides information about the speed at which reactions occur, kinetics also sheds light on the reaction mechanism-exactly how the reaction occurs-series of steps by which a reaction takes place.


Factors That Affect Reaction Rates

• Physical State of the Reactants– In order to react, molecules must come in

contact with each other.– The more homogeneous the mixture of

reactants, the faster the molecules can react.



• Concentration of Reactants– As the concentration of reactants increases,

so does the likelihood that reactant molecules will collide.



• Temperature– At higher temperatures, reactant

molecules have more kinetic energy, move faster, and collide more often and with greater energy.



• Presence of a Catalyst– Catalysts speed up reactions by

changing the mechanism of the reaction.

– Catalysts are not consumed during the course of the reaction.


Reaction Rates

Rates of reactions can be determined by monitoring the change in concentration of either reactants or products as a function of time.

-Reactants decrease over time

-Products in increase over time


Reaction Rates

In this reaction, the concentration of butyl chloride, C4H9Cl, was measured at various times.

C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)


Reaction Rates

The average rate of the reaction over

each interval is the change in

concentration divided by the

change in time:


Average rate = [C4H9Cl]t

-The concentration is in M, mol/L-The rate will always be positive and expressed as mol/Ls


Reaction Rates

• Note that the average rate decreases as the reaction proceeds.

• This is because as the reaction goes forward, there are fewer collisions between reactant molecules.



Reaction Rates

• A plot of [C4H9Cl] vs. time for this reaction yields a curve like this.

• The slope of a line tangent to the curve at any point is the instantaneous rate at that time.



Reaction Rates

• All reactions slow down over time.

• Therefore, the best indicator of the rate of a reaction is the instantaneous rate near the beginning of the reaction.



Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry • In this reaction, the ratio

of C4H9Cl to C4H9OH is 1:1.

• Thus, the rate of disappearance of C4H9Cl is the same as the rate of appearance of C4H9OH.

• We use a negative for the expression of C4H9Cl to account for the decrease of C4H9Cl


Rate =-[C4H9Cl]

t=

[C4H9OH]t


Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry

• What if the ratio is not 1:1?

2 HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)

The rate of formation of H2 is 1/2 the rate of the reaction ofHI. I2 is 1/2 the rate of HI. So, If the rate of reaction of HI is 3.10 mol/Ls, what is the rate of formation of H2 and I2?


Problem #1At 40 ºC, H2O2(aq) will decompose according to the following reaction:

2 H2O2(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

The following data were collected for the concentration of hydrogen peroxide at various times.

times(s) [H2O2](M) 0 1.000 2.16 x 104 0.500 4.32 x 104 0.250

• Calculate the average rate of decomposition of H2O2 between 0 and 2.16 x 104 s. Use this rate to calculate the rate of production of O2(g).

b. What are these rates for the time period 2.16 x 104 s to 4.32 x 104s?


Problem #2• Given the hypothetical reaction:• 2A + nB -> qC + rD

• If the rate of A= 0.05 mol/Ls• the rate of B= 0.150 mol/Ls• the rate of C = 0.075 mol/Ls• the rate of D = 0.025 mol/Ls

• What are the coefficients, n, q, r?


Concentration and Rate

One can gain information about the rate of a reaction by seeing how the rate changes with changes in concentration.



If we compare Experiments 1 and 2, we see that when [NH4

+] doubles, the initial rate doubles.

NH4+(aq) + NO2

−(aq) N2(g) + 2 H2O(l)



Likewise, when we compare Experiments 5

and 6, we see that when [NO2−] doubles, the

initial rate doubles.

NH4+(aq) + NO2

−(aq) N2(g) + 2 H2O(l)


Concentration and Rate• This means

Rate [NH4+]

Rate [NO2−]

Rate [NH4+] [NO2

−]

which, when written as an equation, becomes

Rate = k [NH4+] [NO2

−]

• This equation is called the rate law, and k is the rate constant.

Therefore,


Rate Laws• A rate law shows the relationship between the

reaction rate and the concentrations of reactants. It shows how the rate depends on the concentration of reactants.

• The exponents (n) tell the order of the reaction with respect to each reactant. If n=0, the rate does not depend on the concentration. (n) can be an integer, including zero, or a fraction. We will mostly look at non-fractions.

• Since the rate law is

Rate = k [NH4+] [NO2

−]

the reaction is

First-order in [NH4+] and

First-order in [NO2−].


Rate LawsRate = k [NH4

+] [NO2−]

• The overall reaction order can be found by adding the exponents on the reactants in the rate law.

• This reaction is second-order overall.• Be careful!!! The exponent n is not always the

same as the coefficient in the balanced equation.

• k and n must be determined by experiment (or given to you in the problem using experimental data)


Rate LawsThere are two types of rate laws:

• Differential rate law (or just rate law), which shows how the rate depends on concentration.

• Integrated rate law, which shows how the concentrations depend on time.

Which rate law we choose depends on what type of data is easiest to collect.


Integrated Rate Laws

Using calculus to integrate the rate law for a first-order process gives us

ln[A]t

[A]0

= −kt

Where

[A]0 is the initial concentration of A, and

[A]t is the concentration of A at some time, t, during the course of the reaction.


Integrated Rate Laws

Manipulating this equation produces…

ln[A]t

[A]0

= −kt

ln [A]t − ln [A]0 = − kt

ln [A]t = − kt + ln [A]0

…which is in the form y = mx + bSlope intercept


Units of k

L(n-1)/mol(n-1)•s

So, if n=1 overall, k will be expressed as 1/s

if n=2 overall, k will be expressed as L/mol•s

if n=3 overall, k will be expressed as…

First-Order Rate Law Problem

The decomposition of dimethyl ether (CH3)2O, at 510 °C is a fist-order process with a rate constant of 6.8 x 10-4s-1:

(CH3)2O(g) -> CH4(g) + H2(g) + CO(g)

If the initial pressure of dimethyl ether is 135 torr, what is its pressure after 1420 sec? ln [A]t − ln [A]0 = − kt

Note: Make sure K units and t units correspond. They must both be days, or minutes or seconds… but they must be consistent.

First-Order Rate Law Problem with nuclear decay222Rn -> 218Po + 4He

The first order constant for decay is 0.181 days-1. If you begin with a 5.28 g sample of pure 222Rn, how much will be left after 1.96 days?

3.82 days? ln [A]t − ln [A]0 = − kt


First-Order Processes

Therefore, if a reaction is first-order, a plot of ln [A] vs. t will yield a straight line, and the slope of the line will be -k.

ln [A]t = -kt + ln [A]0



Consider the process in which methyl isonitrile is converted to acetonitrile.

CH3NC CH3CN



This data was collected for this reaction at 198.9 °C.

CH3NC CH3CN



• When ln P is plotted as a function of time, a straight line results.

• Therefore,– The process is first-order.– k is the negative of the slope: 5.1 10-5 s−1.


Second-Order Processes

Similarly, integrating the rate law for a process that is second-order in reactant A, we get

1[A]t

= kt +1

[A]0also in the form

y = mx + b


Second-Order Processes

So if a process is second-order in A, a plot of vs. t will yield a straight line, and the slope of that line is k.

1[A]t

= kt +1

[A]0

1[A]


Second-Order Problem

2I(g) -> I2(g)

If [I]0 = 0.40 M, calculate [I] at t=2.5 x 10-7sec.

K = 7.0 x 109 L/mol•s

1[A]t

= kt +1

[A]0


Second-Order ProcessesThe decomposition of NO2 at 300°C is described by the equation

NO2 (g) NO (g) + O2 (g)

and yields data comparable to this:

Time (s) [NO2], M

0.0 0.01000

50.0 0.00787

100.0 0.00649

200.0 0.00481

300.0 0.00380

12


Second-Order Processes• Plotting ln [NO2] vs. t yields

the graph at the right.

Time (s) [NO2], M ln [NO2]

0.0 0.01000 −4.610

50.0 0.00787 −4.845

100.0 0.00649 −5.038

200.0 0.00481 −5.337

300.0 0.00380 −5.573

• The plot is not a straight line, so the process is not first-order in [A].


Second-Order Processes• Graphing ln

vs. t, however, gives this plot.

Time (s) [NO2], M 1/[NO2]

0.0 0.01000 100

50.0 0.00787 127

100.0 0.00649 154

200.0 0.00481 208

300.0 0.00380 263

• Because this is a straight line, the process is second-order in [A].

1[NO2]


Half-Life

• Half-life is defined as the time required for one-half of a reactant to react.

• Because [A] at t1/2 is one-half of the original [A],

[A]t = 0.5 [A]0.


Half-Life

For a first-order process, this becomes

0.5 [A]0

[A]0

ln = −kt1/2

ln 0.5 = −kt1/2

−0.693 = −kt1/2

= t1/2

0.693kNOTE: For a first-order

process, then, the half-life does not depend on [A]0.


Half-Life Problem

222Rn->218Po + 4HeThe first order rate constant for decay is 0.181 days-1. How much 222Rn would

remain from a 5.82 g sample after 11.46 days? 21.01 days? (Solve for 21.01 days using the half-life method, then for practice, by using the integrated rate law.)

= t1/2

0.693k

NOTE: For a first-order process, then, the half-life does not depend on [A]0.


Half-Life

For a second-order process, 1

0.5 [A]0

= kt1/2 + 1

[A]0

2[A]0

= kt1/2 + 1

[A]0

2 − 1[A]0

= kt1/2

1[A]0

=

= t1/2

1k[A]0


2nd Order Half-Life Problem2I(g) -> I2(g)

If [I]0 = 0.40 M, calculate t1/2

= t1/2

1k[A]0


Temperature and Rate

• Generally, as temperature increases, so does the reaction rate.

• This is because k is temperature dependent.


The Collision Model

• In a chemical reaction, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed.

• Molecules can only react if they collide with each other.


The Collision Model

Furthermore, molecules must collide with the correct orientation and with enough energy to cause bond breakage and formation.


Activation Energy• In other words, there is a minimum amount of energy

required for reaction: the activation energy, Ea.• Just as a ball cannot get over a hill if it does not roll up

the hill with enough energy, a reaction cannot occur unless the molecules possess sufficient energy to get over the activation energy barrier.

• Generally, the lower the Ea, the faster the reaction.


Reaction Coordinate Diagrams

It is helpful to visualize energy changes throughout a process on a reaction coordinate diagram like this one for the rearrangement of methyl isonitrile.


Reaction Coordinate Diagrams• The diagram shows the

energy of the reactants and products (and, therefore, E).

• The high point on the diagram is the transition state.

• The species present at the transition state is called the activated complex.

• The energy gap between the reactants and the activated complex is the activation energy barrier.


Maxwell–Boltzmann Distributions

• Temperature is defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a sample.

• At any temperature there is a wide distribution of kinetic energies.



• As the temperature increases, the curve flattens and broadens.

• Thus at higher temperatures, a larger population of molecules has higher energy.

Maxwell–Boltzmann Distributions• If the dotted line represents the activation energy,

then as the temperature increases, so does the fraction of molecules that can overcome the activation energy barrier.

• As a result, the reaction rate increases.

• Often, the rate of reaction doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. (Not always and for reactions already at room temp~290-300K)



This fraction of molecules can be found through the expression

where R is the gas constant and T is the Kelvin temperature.

f = e-Ea

RT


Maxwell–Boltzmann Problem

If the Ea=100 kJ/mol, T=300K and R=8.314 J/mol K, what is the fraction of molecules that overcome the activation energy barrier?

What is f, if the temperature rises by 10°C?

f = e-Ea

RT


Arrhenius EquationSvante Arrhenius developed a mathematical relationship between k and Ea:

k = A e

where A is the frequency factor, a number that represents the likelihood that collisions would occur with the proper orientation for reaction.

As Ea increases, k decreases. So reaction rates decrease as Ea (activation energy) increases

-Ea

RT


Arrhenius Equation

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides, the equation becomes

ln k = - ( ) + ln A1T

y = m x + b

Therefore, if k is determined experimentally at several temperatures, Ea can be calculated from the slope of a plot of ln k vs. .

Ea

R

1T


Reaction MechanismsThe sequence of events that describes the actual process by which reactants become products is called the reaction mechanism. Many chemical reactions are not a 1-step process. Instead, the balanced chemical equation is the sum of a series of simple steps.

1. The sum of the steps must give the balanced equation. Cancel out any products from one step that are involved in the second step. Ex.


Reaction Mechanisms

2. The mechanism must agree with the observed rate law.


Reaction Mechanisms

• Reactions may occur all at once or through several discrete steps.

• Each of these processes is known as an elementary reaction or elementary process.


Reaction Mechanisms

The molecularity of a process tells how many molecules are involved in the process,

i.e, the number of molecules colliding.


Multistep Mechanisms

• In a multistep process, one of the steps will be slower than all others.

• The overall reaction cannot occur faster than this slowest, rate-determining step.


Slow Initial Step

• The rate law for this reaction is found experimentally to be

Rate = k [NO2]2

• CO is necessary for this reaction to occur, but the rate of the reaction does not depend on its concentration.

• This suggests the reaction occurs in two steps.

NO2 (g) + CO (g) NO (g) + CO2 (g)


Slow Initial Step

• A proposed mechanism for this reaction is

Step 1: NO2 + NO2 NO3 + NO (slow)

Step 2: NO3 + CO NO2 + CO2 (fast)

• The NO3 intermediate is consumed in the second step.

• As CO is not involved in the slow, rate-determining step, it

does not appear in the rate law.


Fast Initial Step

• The rate law for this reaction is found to be

Rate = k [NO]2 [Br2]

• Because termolecular processes are rare, this rate law suggests a two-step mechanism.

2 NO (g) + Br2 (g) 2 NOBr (g)


Fast Initial Step

• A proposed mechanism is

Step 2: NOBr2 + NO 2 NOBr (slow)

Step 1 includes the forward and reverse reactions.

Step 1: NO + Br2 NOBr2 (fast)


Fast Initial Step

• The rate of the overall reaction depends upon the rate of the slow step.

• The rate law for that step would be

Rate = k2 [NOBr2] [NO]

• But how can we find [NOBr2]?


Fast Initial Step

• NOBr2 can react two ways:

– With NO to form NOBr

– By decomposition to reform NO and Br2

• The reactants and products of the first step are in equilibrium with each other.

• Therefore,

Ratef = Rater


Fast Initial Step

• Because Ratef = Rater ,

k1 [NO] [Br2] = k−1 [NOBr2]

• Solving for [NOBr2] gives us

k1

k−1

[NO] [Br2] = [NOBr2]


Fast Initial Step

Substituting this expression for [NOBr2] in the rate law for the rate-determining step gives

k2k1

k−1

Rate = [NO] [Br2] [NO]

= k [NO]2 [Br2]


Catalysts

• Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by decreasing the activation energy of the reaction.

• Catalysts change the mechanism by which the process occurs.


Catalysts

One way a catalyst can speed up a reaction is by holding the reactants together and helping bonds to break.


Enzymes• Enzymes are

catalysts in biological systems.

• The substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme much like a key fits into a lock.

© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chapter 12 Chemical Kinetics.

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Transcript of © 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chapter 12 Chemical Kinetics.