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cPannlng,
andRenearchWORKINGPAPERSEducationandEmploymentPopulationaEndHuman
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ResourcesDepartmentTheWorldBankJuly1988WPS24VWorldBankInvestmentinVocationalEducatiornandTrainingJohnMiddletonandTerriDemskyThechallenge
facingfutureWorldBankinvestmentinvoca-tionaleducationandtrainingisto
bringpastsuccessesinmiddle-incomecountriestothelowerincomecountries.Strategies
naturallywillhavetovarygreatlyfromcountrytocountry.
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ThePolicy.Planning,andResearchCatplexdistnhutesPPRWorkingPaperstodisseminthefindingsofworkinprogrssandtoencouxagetheexchangeof
ideasamongBankstaffandallothersinterestedindevelopmnentissues.ThesepaperS
carrythenamesoftheauthors,rflectonlytheirviews,andshouldbe
usedandcitedaccordingly.Tbefindings.intAepretions,andconclusionsare
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theauthors'own.TheyshouldnotbeattributedtotheWorldBank,itsBoardofDixcrors,itsmamgement,oranyofitsnembercountries.Public Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure Authorized
Table18:IncidenceofArticulationArrangements,By37CountryLevel:SampleofCompleted
IndustryVETComponentTable19:PercentageofLinkedComponentsWithA38Given
LinkageType,ByMode:SampleofCompletedVETIndustryComponents
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Table20:IncidenceofProvisionofTrainingServices39toEnterprises,ByRegionandTimePeriodTable21:SupportforTestingandCertification42
System,SampleCountries,ByIncomeLevelTable22:FactorsinInstructionalStaffDevelopment,
44ByCountryTable23:ProjectInvestmentEmphasisonDeveloping51InstitutionalPlanning,
ManagementandCurriculumDevelopmentCapacity.Table24:TheDevelopmentof
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NationalTrainingSystems53Table25:ComponentManagementEffectiveness59andAdequacyofFinancing,ByRegion,IncomeLevelandModeTable26:UnitRecurrent
Costs66Table27:EvidenceonOutcomes,ByRegion,67CompletedProjectsTable
28:ProportionsofEnrollmentTargetsAchiev.'68atCompletionByModeandIncome
Le,CompletedIndustryVETProjectsTable29:AverageComponentPerformance,
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ByModew.,!69andIncomeLevel,CompletedProjectsTable30:AverageComponentPerformance,ByModeand70Region,CompletedProjectsEXECUTIVESUMMARYi.
ThenatureofWorldBank-assistedinvestmentinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)for
industrialemploymenthasevolvedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwenty-three*ears.Theshareof
educationsectorlendingforVEThasdeclinedasinvestmentin
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primaryeducationhasincreased.Absoluteinvestmentreachedapeakof$845millioninFY80,andhasfluctuatedannuallysincethenaroundanaverageof
$500million.WithinVET,therehasbeenasignificantshiftawayfrominvestments
insecondarydiversifiedandvocationalschoolstowardsnonformaltrainingcentersanduniversity-levelprograms.
InvestmentsinVETforindustryhaveincreased,whilethosefor
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agriculturaleducationandtraininghavedecreasedsubstantially.Theseshiftsreflectlessonslearnedthroughexperienceabouttherelativeeffectivenessofdifferentmodesoftraining.ii.
Moststrikinghasbeenthedevelopmentinthelastdecadeofnationaltraining
systemsbuiltaroundnonformaltrainingcentersandpost-secondarytechnicaleducationinstitutions,primarilyin
middleincomecountries.Thesehavebeendevelopedthroughsequencesof
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projectinvestmer.tsthatemphasizedthedevelopmentofinstitutionalcapacityandlinkagesbetweentrainingandemploymena.Thesystems,andtheprojectcomponentsthatsupportedthem,
haveperformedwellonimplementationcriteria,andtheevidencesuggestsareasonablelevel
oftrainingeffectivenessaswell.Ithasbeenpossibletoestablishallmodes
oftraining--secondary,nonformal,post-secondary,andVETteachertraining
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--inmiddleincomecountries.iii.Ivcontrast,investmentsandinstitutionsinlowincomecountries,.peciallythoseinSub-SaharanAfrica,havebeencomparatively
lesssuccessful.Implementationweaknessesandstagnatingeconomieshavemadeitdifficulttoestablish
anymodeoftraining,andtheevidencesuggestslowutilizationandefficiency.Investment
inthedevelopmentofnationalsystemshasonlyjustbegun
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inthesecountries,withuncertainoutcomesduetocontinuingeconomicandimplementationconstraints.iv.Overall,thesepatternssuggestthatthelevelofeconomicdevelopment,
andtheconsequentsizeanddynamismofindustrialemployment,exertspowerfulinfluenceon
thesuccessofinvestmentsinvocationaleducationandtraining.Futureinvestmentstrategiesshould
thusdiffersubstantiallyacrosscountriesatdifferentlevelsofindustrialization.
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v.Inmiddleincomecountries,investmentsinexistingnationalsystemsarelikelytoemphasizerehabilitation,qualityimprovement,andcontinuedinstitutionaldevelopmenttowardsimprovedefficiency.
Insomecasesbuildingthecapacityofnationalsystemstoassumenewroles
intechnologyadaptationandproductivityimprovementwillbeimportant.-ii-vi.Anumber
oflower-middleincome(andsomelargerlow-income)countriesareat
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anearlierstageofsystemsdevelopment.Theexperiencesofmoreadvancedcountrieswillbeusefultocontinuinginvestments;thesewillincludesupportforpolicy
andinstitutionaldevelopment.Keypolicyissueswillbeclearstructuralseparationoftraining
fromgeneraleducationandthedevelopmentofalternativestodiLectgovernmentfinancing.vii.
Insmalllowincomecountries,recentBankinvestmentexperiencesuggests
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strategiesthatconcentrateresources,andthatemphasizenonformaltrainingcenters,trainingquality,developmentofmanagementcapacitybothintraininginstitutionsandinenterprises,and
aggressivemarketingoftrainingopportunitiesandservices.Regionalprofessionalsupportinstitutionsmeritconsideration.
viii.ForinvestmentssupportedbytheWorldBank,atleast,thevocationalsecondary
schoolhasbecomealessattractivemodeoftraining.Vocational
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secondaryschoolscanbeeffectiveinmiddleincomecountrieswhentheyacquirethecharacteristicsofeffectivenonformalcenters--stronglinkageswithenterprises,and
theabilitytorespondklexiblytochanginglabormarketsandtooffersalaries
andincentivessufficienttoattractandretainqualifiedinstructors.Inlowincomecountries,
weakimplementationcapacityandthenascentstageofenterprisedevelopment,
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coupledwiththecurriculumandstaffingrigiditiesandrecurrentcostconstraintscharacteristicofMinistryofEducationoperations,havemadeitdifficulttoadaptthe
secondarymodeleffectivelyinthesedirections.ix.Atthesametime,strongsecondary
educationisimportanttotrainability,eitherafteremploymentinenterprispiorbeforein
nonformalcenters.Inthiscontext,thedeclineofBankinvestment
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ingeneralsecondaryeducationoverthepastdecadeneedsre-examination.Anewconceptofsecondaryeducationinthelowincomecountriesisneeded.x.
ThustheBankfacesbothanopportunityandachallengeinprQvidingsupport
forvocationaleducationandtrainingoverthebalanceofthecentury.Theopportunity
istocapitalizeon--andtoextend--;he
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generallysuccessfulpatternoftrainingsystemsdevelopmentinmiddleincomecountries.Thechallengeisposedbytheproblemsofdevelopingcost-effectivetrainingsystemsin
smalllow-incomecountries,notablyinSub-SaharanAfrica.Successfulinvestmentwillrequireavery
highlevelofpolicyandinstitutionaldevelopmentcontent;ofspecialimportancewillbe
continueddevelopmentofalternativefinancingarrangemenus.xi.Theseconclusionsemerge
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fromananalysisofWorldBankinvestmentsinvocationally-specificeducationandtrainingforindus-trialemploymentintheperiodFY63-86.TherevieLisbased
ona-i$i-asampleof121ofthe213industryVETcomponents
inthe320educationsectorprojectsfinancedintheperiodFY63-86.Thesample
wasdrawntoberepresentativeacrosstrainingmodes,regions,and
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countryincomelevels.Itemphasizesmorerecentinvestmentsandcounttieswhereasequenceofprojectinvestmentshasbeenmade.Thesamplerepresents60%of
thetotalprojectcostsoftheuniverse.xii.Theanalysisaddressesf-u-questions.
Whatarethecharacteristicsofinvestmentsin-intermsofsizeand
typeofinvestment,costsandoverallinpl~ntationperformance?What
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weretheelementsofinvestmentdesign?;hatstrategieshavebee-,employedindevelopingnationaltrainingsystems?Whatwastherecordofperformanceofcomponents
andinstitutinns;whatfactorscontributedtoorinhibitedsuccess?Themainfindingsunder
eachquestionaresummarizedbe'ow.MAINFINDINGSCharacteristicsoftheInvestmentsxiii.The
sizeoftheprojectsfinanced,andofoftheVET
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componentswithinthem,varieddirectlywiththeincomelevelofthecountry.ThesmallestprojectsandcomponentswereinAfrica,thelatteraveragingabout
US$7million;thelargestprojectswereinAsia.VETcomponentsinAsia,
LACandEMENAweresimilarinsize,averagingaboutfourtimesthecost
ofcomponentsinAfrica.xiv.Projectperformance,asmeasuredby
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timeoverrunsandinstitutionalperformance,variedrelativelylittle,andthenmorebyregionthanbycountryincomelevel.Byregion,thebestperformancewas
achievedinAsiaandEMENA,followedbyLAC.Overall,therewasaslight
projectcostunderrun.Oncompletiondelaystheseinvestmentsperformedaswellasprimary
educationprojectsfinancedduringtheperiod(average31months);on
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institutionalperformancetheycomparefavorablytoalleducationsectorprojectscompletedinFY84andFY85.xv.Theinstitutionssupportedweresmallestintermsof
placesinEMENAandinlowincomecountries.Totalinvestmentcostsperplace
createdweresignificantlyhigherinAfricaandinlowincomecountries.Thesecosts
varyconsiderablyacrossmodes,incomelevelsandregions;thedata
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indicate,however,thattheinvestmentscostsassociatedwithproducingaskilledworkerareroughlyequivalentforsecondaryandnonformalinstitutions.Teachertrainingplaceshave
beenmostcostlyoverall.Costdifferencescanbeexplainedbyeconomiesofscale
onlyforsecondaryinstitutionsacrossincomelevels.xvi.Theseinvestmentshaveprovidedincreasing
supportovertimeforfurnitureandequipment,andfortechnical
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assistance,consistentwithlateremphasisonrehabilitationandinstitutionaldevelopment.-iv-InvestmentDesignxvii.Theeconomicjustificationsofthesamplecomponentsrarelyaddressedshort
andmedium-tervlabormarketdemandfactors,relyinginsteadongeneralmanpowerrequirementsforecasts
basedonassumptionsregardingeconomicgrowth.Wheresuchgrowthdidnotmaterialize(as
wasthacaseinmostlowincomecountries),theseforecasts
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havebeengenerallyinaccurate.MostweredonebyBankstafforUNESCOconsultants.Itisreasonabletoassume,givenaparallellackofattention
toshorter-termplanning,thatmanpowerforecastingdivertedattentionfromtheestablishmentofmore
flexibleandresponsiveplanningmechanisms.Labormarketfactorshavereceivedmoreattentionin
laterinvestmentsinmiddleincomecountries,mostofwhichhave
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sapportedthedevelopmentofnationalsystemsbasedonnonformaltrainingcenters.xviii.Relativelylittlehasbeendoneinthesecomponentstoaddresstrainingopportunities
forwomen,althoughageneralthreadofconcernforbetteraccessofdisadvantaged
groupsrunsthroughmostoftheinvestments.Improvingtheincomeofdisadvantagedgroups
requiresmorethantrnining.Attentiontoemploymentcodesandpractices,
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andmanagementattitudesandnacity,isalsoneeded.Thereisnoevidencethattheseissueswereaddressedinthecomponentssampled.xix.Sectoranalysis
hasbeenimportant,generallyleadingtosignificantinvestmentsininstitutionaldevelopment.Sectorwork
inAfricaisbeginningtocontributetopolicyandinstitutionaldevelopment,althoughthe
frequencyandpolicyrelevanceofsectoranalysisintheregion
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havelaggedbehindthatinotherregions.DevelopmentofNationalTrainingSystemsxx.Aclearpatternofsuccessemergesfromtheanalysisofinvestment
strategies.Increasingemphasisinmiddleincomecountrieshasbeengiventothecreation
ofnationaltrainingsystems.Thesearelargelybasedonnonformalmodes,arewell
linkedwithemployers,generallyseektodevelopalternativefinancingschemes,
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andincorporateprofessionalsupportinstitutionsthatestablishthepermanentcapacityforcurriculumdevelopmentandteachertraining.Testingandcertificationsystemsprovidefeedbacktosystem
managersandtoemployersonperformance.Curriculumdevelopmentisoftenbasedonoccupational
analysis,providinganotherpracticallinkbetweentrainingandemployment.Thesesystemsalsoincorporate
post-secondarytechnicaleducationandtraininginstitutions.xxi.Managementofthe
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nonformalsystemismostoftenbasedinautonomousorquasi-autonomoustrainingagencies,orinunitsoftheMinistryofLabor.Thereisaclear
administrativeseparationofvocationaltrainingandtechnicianeducationatthepost-secondarylevel,with
thelattermanagedbyMinistriesofEducation.Manyofthenationaltrainingsystems
employasignificantdegreeofdecentralizationinordertostrengthen
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trainingcenterresponsivenesstolocalindustryneeds.Decentralizationstrategies,however,haveencounteredimplementationdifficultieswhereadequatepreparationofdecentralizedunitshasnotbeenundertaken.
xxii.Suchsystemsmaybeunderdevelopmentincurrentprojectsinalimited
numberofcountriesinSub-SaharanAfrica.However,mostoftheearlyinvestmentsin
thesecountrieshavebeensmallprojectssupportingafewvocational
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schools;inlateryearsthesehavesupportednonformaltrainingcenters.Sustainedinvestmentinsystemsdevelopmenthassofarbeencomparativelyrare.Performancexxiii.Data
oneconomicoutcomesoftrainingareabsentfromprojectevaluations.Reliableunitrecurrent
costdataisalmostentirelylacking,althoughthedatathatareavailableconfirm
thatsecondaryvocationalschoolsaremoreexpensivethangeneralsecondary
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schools.Thusassessmentofinvestmentperformanceislargelylimitedtocriteriaofimplementationsuccess.xxiv.TheexceptionisfoundfortheinvestmentsinAsia.
Thereinformationongraduationrates,placementratesandemployersatisfactionwasavailablefor
asufficientproportionofthecomponentstojustifyinferences.Onallthreecriteria,
theinstitutionssupportedinthesecomponentsperformedverywell.These
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includedallmodesoftraining.-xv.Onthecriterionofproportionofenrollmenttargetsachievedatcompletion,performancevarieddirectlywiththeincomelevel
ofthecountry.About40%oftargetswereachievedinlowincomecountries;
90%inlower-middleincomecountries,and109%inupper-middleincomecountries.Overall,there
waslittlevarlitionacrossmodes.However,secondaryvocationalschoolsperformed
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bestoverall,andslightlybetteracrossincomelevelsthanthemorecomplexnonformalinstitutions.Thedataindicatethatitisdifficulttoestablishany
institutionalmodeinlowincomecountries(includingsecondaryvocationalschools),withweakimplementation
capacityandfinancialconstraints.Theoppositeistrueformiddleincomecountries.xxvi.
Thiscriterion,ofcourse,doesnotcapturetheeventualenrollment
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performanceofprojectinstitutions,manywhichsufferedfromsignificantdelaysincompletion.Butitcanbetakenasanindicatorofthedifficultiesencountered
inestablishingagivenmodeoftraining.xxvii.Thesefindingsaremirroredin
ratingsofinstitutionalperformanceofVETcomponents.Onaregionalbasis,componentsin
Africaperformedatasignificantlylowerlevelthanthosein
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theotherthreeregions.-vi-xxviii.SecondaryvocationalschoolshaveperformedwellonimplementationcriteriaInpartduetotherelativesimplicityandfamiliarity
ofinstitutionaldebLgn.Inlowincomecountries,endinAfrica,whilethesehave
performedbetterthanmorecomplexandlessfamiliarnonformalinstitutions,theabsolutelevel
ofperformancehasbeenverylow.Theseinstitutionshavealso
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encounteredsignificantproblemsineffectiveness.Manyappearunderutilized.Theyhavehadmuchlesssuccessinestablishinglinkageswithemploymentthannonformalandpost-secondaryinstitutions.
MinistryofEducationteachersalaryscaleshavemadeitdifficulttopaywages
adequatetoattractqualifiedstaff,contributinginmanyAfricancountriestocontinuingreliance
onexpatriateteachers.xxix.Preferencefornonformaltrainingcentersunder
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thesecircumstancesrestsonsuccessfulexperienceinmiddleincomecoG:ntries,andonthegreaterinherentpotentialforflexibilityeffilencythatnonformaltrainingprovides.
Whetherindeedthispotentialcanberealizedinlowincomesettingsremainsan
openquestion.xxx.Successfulinvestmentprogramsinmiddleincomecountrieshadincommon
ninecharacteristics:a.LongTimePerspectiveWithMultipleInvestmentsb.
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ExpandingIndustrialEmploymentc.SmallBeginningsinFormalInstitutions,andIncrementalExpansiond.PlanningThatRespondedtoLaborMarketDemande.EarlyandSustained
InvolvementofEnterprisesf.EvolutionofPolicyandManagementCapacitytoMatchSystem
Complexityg.IncreasingAttentiontoAlternativestoDirectGovernmentFinancingh.Investmentsin
TrainingQuality:PermanentCurriculumandStaffTrainingCapacity,Testing,Attractive
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SalariesforStaff;IncentivestoAttractGoodStudentsi.FlexibilityofCurri.lumandInstitutionalDesignxxxi.Lesssuccessfulinvestmentswereweakonmost,if
notallofthesecharacteristics.-vii-xxxii.Thereareindicationsthatsomeof
theselessonsarebeingappliedincArrentinvestmentsinlowincomecountriesin
Sub-SaharanAfrica.Institutionalcapacityisbeingstrengthenedinfivecountries;
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insevenotherssupportisbeinggiventodevelopingnonformaltrainingcenters.SinceFY80onlyoneinvestmentinSub-SaharanAfricahassupportedavocational
secondaryschool.I.Introduction1.01Investmentinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)has
beenthecornerstoneofWorllBankeducationsectorlendingsincethefirsteducation
loaninFY63.Theinvestmentshavesupportedarangeof
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institutions!arrangementsforthedeliveryoftrainingatskilledwtrker,technicianandprofessional/manageriallevels,includingsecondaryvocationalschools,center-basednonformaltrainingandapprenticeship,polytechnics
andoccupationally-specificuniversitydepartmentsandprograms,andteachertrainingforbothVETand
generaleducation.Alsoincludedhavebeen"diversified"secondaryschoolsthataddsomevocational
contenttogeneraleducation.Theinvestmentshaveprovidedtrainingin
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supportofemploymentinindustry,agricultureandcommerce/services.1.02MorethanhalfofthetotalcostofprojectssupportedbyWorldBankeducationsector
lendingintheperiodFY63-86wasdevotedtoVET.IntheperiodFY63-7f
investmentsinallformsofVETrepresented62%oftotalprojcosts.Annual
lendingvolumeforVETgrewtrom$6.6millioninFY63
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co$160millioninFY76,withanaverageannualvalueof$150million.Aslendingforprimaryeducationexpandedfromthelate1970s
onward,theshareofWorldBankeducationsectorlendingdevotedtoVETdeclined
proportionallyto51%.However,absolutelendingvolumeincreased,reachingapeakof
$845millionin1980,andfluctuatingthereafteraroundanaverage
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of$500millionperyear.1/1.03Theshapeofthisinvestmentprogramhaschangedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwenty-fiveyears.Lendingincreasedfor
industryVET,anddecreasedforagriculture.WithinindustryVET,investmentsincenter-basednonformal
trainingadministeredoutsideministriesofeducationandinuniversity-levelprcgramshasincreasedrelative
toothermodes.Investmentindiversifiedsecondaryschoolshasdeclined
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sharply.1.04Inrecentyearsincreasinglyconstrainededucationbudgets,thecomparativelyhighcostsofVETandconcernsregardingtheexternalefficiencyofsomeVET
institutionshaveraisedquestionsastothecost-effectivenessofalternativeinvestmentsintraining.
Anumberof1/AcomprehensiveanalysisofpatternsofWorldBankinvestments
inVETmaybefoundinAntoinaSchwartz.Profileof
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WorldBankFinancedInvestmentsinVocationalEducationandTraining.PopulationandHumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank(1988,forthcoming).-2-internationalagencies,includingtheWorld
Bank,CIDAandtheGTZ(Germany)arecarryingoutbroadly-basedpolicyanalysesand
reviews.ThisstudyofWorldBankexperiencewitinvestmentsintrainingfor
industrialemploymenthasbeenundertakenaspartoftheBank's
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broaderpolicyanalysis.SCOPEANDLIMITATIONSOFTHEREVIEW1.05ThepurposeofthisreviewistoidentifylessonsfromBankexperiencewithinvestments
invocationaleducationandtraining(VET)toinformfutureinvestment.Thestudyis
limitedtotrainingformodernsectorindustrialemployment,andfurthertofourtraining
modes:secondary,post-secondary,nonformalandvocationalteachertraining.Notincluded
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areuniversity-levelVETinvestments,diversifiedsecondaryschoolsandgeneralteachertraining.1/1.06Likealloperationalreviews,thestudyisconcernedbothwithinvestment
projectsandtheinstitutionsthatthesesupport.Therearefiveprincipalquestions,each
treatedinaseparatesectionofthereview:(a)Whatarethecharacteristics
oftheseinvestmentsintermsofsizeandtypeof
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investment,costsandoverallimplementationperformance?(b)Whatweretheelementsofinvestmentdesign?Howweretheseinvestmentsjustifiedandplanned?(c)Towhat
extenthaveeffectivetrainingsystemsbeendeveloped?Whatinvestmentstrategieswereemployed?(d)
Whatwastherecordofperformanceofprojectcomponentsandinstitutions,inimplementation
andintermsofeducationaloutcomes?Whatfactorscontributedto
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orinhibitedsuccess?(e)WhatlessonscanbedrawnforfutureVETinvestment?1/Trainingforemploymentinagriculture,andinservices/commerce,isbeing
analyzedinseparatereviews.University-levelinvestmentswillalsobetreatedseparately;teachertraining
anddiversifiedsecondaryschoolshavebeenanalyzedpreviously(seeHaddad,1985;Haddadand
Conly,1987;PsacharopoulosandLoxley,1985).-3-1.07
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ThescopeofthereviewandtheanswerstothesequestionsarenecessarilylimitedtotheexperienceoftheBankanditsBorrowerswith
trainingformodernindustrialsectoremployment,andwiththefourmodesoftraining
aelected.WhiletheBankhasbeenthesinglelargestinvestorineducationin
developingcountries,1/itsexperienceisnotnecessarilyrepresentativeof
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allVETinvestment.1.08ThereviewdoesnotaddressthesubstantialinvestmentsmadebytheBankinprojectrelatedtraining,orineducationcomponents
inprojectsinothersectors,withtheexceptionofalimitednumberof
"freestandingtrainingprojects."2/1.09However,thereviewdoescovertheemployment
sector--industry--receivinggreatestemphasisintrainingnvestment
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(80%oftotalVETinvestmentinFY77-86).Thefourmodesstudiedaccountedforsomewhatmorethanhalfofthisinvestment(withthebalancecoming
largelyinuniversity-levelprojects).1.10Finally,theretrospectivenatureofthereviewfocuses
attentiononwhathasbeendoneinthepast,andtoalesser
extentonthenatureofcurrentinvestments.Therearesignificant
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issuesinVET--forexample,thecontributionoftrainingtoinformalsectoremployment--thatfalllargelyoutsideofWorldBankexperience,however
importanttheymightbeforthefuture.DEFINITIONSANDCONCEPTS1.11Thefield
ofvocationaleducationandtrainingisbesetbydefinitionalproblems.Inhisreview
oftheliteratureonthecost-effectivenessoftraining,Doughertynotes
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that"...muchofthecontroversyintheliteratureappearstobeattributabletoantagonistsunwittinglyfocussingontwodifferentpointsinwhatis
ineffectacontinuousspectrumandthenarguingatcrosspurposes.u(1988,forthcoming).
1/TheBankprovided14-20%ofexternalaidtoeducationannuallybetween1980
and1986.SeeProgramforAcceleratedEducationalDevelopment.Populationand
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HumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank.April,1988.2/PRTinvestmentshavebeenrecentlyanalyzedin:AnnualOperationalReviewFY87:EducationandTraining.Populationand
HumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank,March,1988.H.W.Barker.GeneralOperationalReviewof
theTreatmentofManpowerandTrainingIssuesinSectorWork.PopulationandHuman
ResourcesDepartment,WorldBank(1988forthcoming).-4-1.12
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Clarityisneededalonigtwodimensions.Oneisessentiallystatic.Thisisthedefinitionofwhatisbeingstudied,requiringtheutilizationofa
taxonomythatmakesitpossibletodistinguishamongthevariouspurposesandinstitutional
arrangementsthatcharacterizethe"continuousspectrum"oftrainingprovision.Thesecondisdynamic.
Aconceptualmodelisneededinordertoidentify,a
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priori,thebasicelementsoftrainingsystemsthat,takentogether,determinecost-effectiveness.Theseelements,inturn,canserveasthecommontemplateforthe
evaluationofvaryingkindsoftraininginvestments.ATaxonomyofTraining1.13A
fundamentalpremiseofthisreviewisthatthenatureandeffectivenessofvarious
trainingsystemsdependsonthedegreetowhichtheyfit
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theneedsofeconomiesatdifferentlevelsofdevelopment.Trainingsystemsinlowincomecountrieswilladdressdifferenttrainingneeds,andencounterdifferinginstitutional
constraints,thanthoseinmiddleincomeordevelopedcountries.Thusanimportantdimension
ofanytaxonomywillbesomeproxymeasureforthelevelofeconomic
development.1.14Asecondkeydimensionisthesectorof
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employment.Labormarketdemand,andskillneeds,differacrossthesectors.Moreover,trainingsystemsareoftenorganizedandadministeredseparately,especiallythoseforagriculture.
1.15Themodeoftrainingisanimportantthirddimension.Trainingisorganized
inagreatmanyways,andasnotedearlier,thereisconsiderableuncertainty
astohowthesemodesshouldbecategorized.Underany
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svstem,agivenlabel--suchas"vocationalsecondaryschool"--willmaskconsiderablevarietyinthewayinwhichtrainingisorganizedand
delivered.Nevertheless,somecategorizationisneeded,especiallyonewhichidentifiesmodeswiththe
skilllevelforwhichtrainingisprovided.Hereagainweencounteracontinuum
ratherthanclearlydistinguishablecategories,butitisreasonableto
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usethethreelevelsmostcommonlyreferredtoinboththeliteratureandinvestmentdocuments:craftorskilledworker;technician;andprofessional.1.16A
matrixtaxonomyofVETusingthesethreedimensionsispresentedinFigure1.
Countryincomelevel,asreportedintheWorlddevelopmentreport,isusedas
aproxyforlevelofeconomicdevelopment.Thethreeprincipal
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sectorsofemploymentformtheseconddimension.1.17Seveninstitutionalmodesforvocationally-specificeducationandtrainingareidentified:university,teachertrainingforgeneraleducation,
diversifiedsecondary,post-secondary,secondaryandnonformal.Takentogether,thesemodesdefinetheuniverse
oftypesofvocationaleducationandtraininginwhichtheWorldBankhas
invested.Thescopeofthepresentreviewisindicatedin
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thematrix.More Information Less InformationClose