What role have alliances (coalitions) played in the development of land warfare 1792-1918

What role have alliances (coalitions) played in the development of land warfare 1792-1918 ?

INTRODUCTION

Nations increasingly preferred to fight along side allies during 1792-1918 or at least fight an enemy in isolation. The benefits derived from alliance warfare 1813-15 and 1914-18 derive from attrition. A lack of allies such as the CSA 1861-5 or France 1870-71 allowed for the individual defeat in detail of those armies. Alliances could also be perceived as a force for peace such as the Congress system 1815-60 and the Bismarckian alliances 1879-1889.

THE BIT IN THE MIDDLE

ALLIANCES 1792-1812

Nations were in alliance against France ( Austro-Britain 1809)

Napoleon was able to defeat his enemies in singular combat (Ulm , Austerlitz and Jena)

Britain played a major role (Indirect approach) through finance and supply

British troop involvement provided a second front against Napoleon (Peninsular War 1808-14)

The turning point came with Russian success and the decision of Alexander I to invade Napoleonic Europe (1812 campaign)

THE GRAND ALLIANCE 1813-15

Castlereagh was the diplomatic founder of the Grand Alliance (Britain , Prussia , Russia , Austria)

The alliance had a single aim , to defeat Napoleon without making a separate peace (Treaty of Chaumont)

The BRAP Led to the attrition(progressive degradation using the Bernadotte strategy) of Napoleon and his abdication 1814 and 1815 (Waterloo).

Unlike the years of legend (1804-09) , Napoleon was unable to defeat Great Powers individually.

THE INVENTION OF PEACE 1815-1860

The Grand Alliance decided to deal with the reorganisation of Europe after the war 1792-1815 over a period of years (Congress System)

The alliance accepted the Kantian idea that all were responsible for peace (the idea of positive peace rather than negative peace)

Alliances could be used to maintain peace reflecting two broad ideas

The Holy Alliance set up by Alexander I (Universalism)

The Balance of Power system (State Paper 1820 of Castlereagh)

Holy Alliance ended with the death of Alexander I 1825 and the 1815 Balance was disrupted by the Crimean War 1854-6 (removed Russia from the equation until 1894) and Unification of Germany 1860-71 (created a new assertive military power in central Europe)

THE SEARCH FOR ALLIES 1861-1914

1861 American Civil War broke out. The USA planned a war of attrition (Anaconda Plan) against the CSA

With its advantages the USA did not need allies , however the only way the CSA could win was to produce a spectacular victory that would encourage intervention on their behalf (by Britain in Canada or France in Mexico).

The CSA failed to gain the intervention (Gettysburg 1863).

Bismarck ensured that Prussia would destroy France and claim the dominant position in Europe (Franco-Prussian War 1870-71) by isolating France (such as not attacking through Belgium).

1871-1888 Bismarck used alliances to isolate France and maintain German dominance (Dual , Triple and Three Emperors League)

During the reign of Kaiser William II the Bismarck system collapsed (Bismarck dismissed 1890 and the start of Weltpolitik)

France found her allies (Dual and Triple Entente 1894 , 1904)

The murder of Franz Ferdinand 1914 would trigger the alliance system.

THE GREAT WAR 1914-18

The alliances that went to war 1914 transform into the Allies and The Central powers

The Allies decide to fight a war of attrition (Chantilly Conference 1915) , as Ludendorf said Germany lost the war of materials.

1916 is a fine example of allied strategy (Verdun , Somme , Brusilov)

Haig pointed out that Somme 1916 , Passchendaele 1917 and the 100 Days 1918 were really one single attritional operation.

USA entered the war in 1917 as an Associate power of the alllies and not as a member of the Allies. The USA had their own command structure and own policy (14 points of Wilson)

Progressive degradation of Germany could be anticipated (Moltke after failure of Schlieffen Plan 1914) , asking for a negotiated armistice (after Somme 1916) and accepting the unconditional armistice (November 1918).

Germany had killed more , taken more prisoners and was not invaded , yet still had to accept the Diktat (Versailles 1919)

CONCLUSION

Alliances could be used in different ways in land warfare 1792-1918. The move toward Attritional strategy was facilitated by the search for allies. Any nation found isolated was at a strategic disadvantage. The wars of quick victory over an isolated enemy had vanished by 1915. However , alliances were also used to maintain peace as well as fight wars. Whether displaying universalistic tendencies , security through isolation of the enemy or collective security in the balance of power system.