Post on 19-Dec-2015
“Crime Victim”
The term "crime victim" generally refers to any person or group who has suffered injury or loss due to illegal activity
The harm can be physical, psychological, or economic
Victimization Theories
What makes someone a victim? Look at criminal-victim dyad
Victim as agent provocateur Victim characteristics contribute to
victimization Situational context Spatial characteristics Can we decrease our chances of being
victimized?
Victimization and situational setting
Individual behavior is a product of an interaction between the person and the setting
Most criminological theories pay attention only to the first, asking why certain people might be more criminally inclined or less so
This neglects the important features of social setting
Benjamin Mendelsohn (1956)
Father of victimology – coined term victimology Discovered strong relationship between
victimization and social setting Classification based on legal considerations of
the degree of the victim’s blame 1. completely innocent (being in the wrong place at
the wrong time) 2. victims with minor guilt/due to ignorance 3. victim as guilty as offender/voluntary victim
Victim Precipitation
The degree to which victim is responsible for own victimization
Wolfgang (1958): first to empirically investigate victim precipitation
Investigated homicides in Philly from 1948-1952 Common factors:
1. Often victim and offender know each other
2. Alcohol plays role
3. Incident often escalates from minor altercation to murder
Victim Precipitation
60% of cases where women killed their husbands as victim precipitated
9% of incidents where men killed their wives as victim precipitated
Wolfgang’s Study
Victim was “the first to slap, punch, stab..”
The prevalence of victim precipitation in murder and assault is contrary to the popular image victims as totally innocent
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
Interpersonal dispute is a dominant characteristic of many homicides
Five stages of escalation for typical homicide
1. Victim makes a direct offensive verbal attack against the offender (40 % of victims initiate the homicide drama by verbal threat)
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
2. The offender interprets the victim’s words and deeds as offensive
3. The offender makes the opening to “pay back” the victim for the previous insult
4. The eventual victim “stands up” to the offender’s opening, responding with increased hostility
5. Commitment to battles ensues, the victim is left dead or dying (35% of offenders carry gun or knives, and nearly 65% leave the crime scene to obtain weapons)
Victim Precipitation and Homicide
Amir’s analysis or rape
Police records on rape incidents in Philly from 1958-1960
19% of all forcible rapes were victim-precipitated
Factors: alcohol, seductive actions by victim, wearing revealing clothing, using risque language, bad reputation
Offender’s interpretation of actions is what is important – not what victim actually does
Provocative dress - active precipitation
Female victims contribute to their attacks by provocative dressing/behavior
Passive Precipitation
Occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristic that either threaten or encourages the attacker
Related to power Group of immigrants arriving to the
community and compete for job Love interest, promotion
Problems with Victim Precipitation
Assumption that behavior of victim can explain criminal act
Responsibility Placed on Victim Creates Culturally Legitimate Victim Excuses Offenders Behavior
Victimology Today Aim to search for the causes of
victimization Search for remedies or prevention Concerned with:
How victims are defined How definitions are applied – by victim by
social scientists, by community How victims react to experience How society responds to victims – systems
for dealing with victims
Lifestyle Theory
Victimization is the function of the victim’s lifestyle
Going out in public places late at night, living in urban areas
High-risk lifestyles: drinking, taking drugs, getting involved in crimes, leaving household for a long time, etc
Do WSU students have high-risk lifestyles?
Lifestyles Theory Micro-level theory Variations in lifestyle affect # situations with
high victimization risks that an individual may experience People associate with Working outside of the home Leisure activities
Someone who has drug dealer as friend more likely to be victimized than someone with prosocial friends
Empirical Tests General findings: homes that are well-guarded
are less likely to be burglarized, people who stay out late and drink heavily are more likely to be crime victims
Schwartz and Pitts (1995): study of college women at Ohio University Most likely to be victim:
Number of nights go out drinking (suitable target/absence of guardianship)
Whether have friends who get women drunk for purpose of having sex (motivated offender)
Experiencing uncomfortable advances in bar (suitable target, motivated offenders, absence of capable guardianship)
Dangerous Times
Nighttime and weekends are the peak times for most violent crimes, property offenses, and public order violations
Darkness is a criminogenic condition (fewer people are around, higher rates of drug and alcohol use, greater anonymity)
Dangerous places
Dangerousness of particular physical locations changes according to crimes
Victims’ homes (homicide, assault, sexual offenses)
Streets around victim’s homes and deserted areas near parking lots and entertainment establishments (muggers and auto thieves)
Dangerous Times and Places for Homicide and Aggravate Assault
Homicide Evening hours (6pm-6a.m)
(70%) Weekends (39%) Home/residence (35%) Street/alley (39%) Vehicle (10%) Commercial places (6%)
Aggravated Assault Evening hours (6p.m. –
midnight) (49%) Within 1 mile of residence
(54%) Streets/parking lots (34%) In or near victim’s home
(28%) Schools (5%) Home of
friend/relative/neighbor (9%)
Victim profile in homicide and aggravated assault
Homicide victimsMale (76%)White (50%); African american(48%)13-24 years old (32%)Same race of victim and offender (89%)Single and never married (54%)Urban resident (54%)Employed (56%)High risk occupations: 1. Taxicab driver and Chauffeurs 2. Police/Law enforcement officials 3. Hotel clerks 4. Garage & service station employee 5. Stock handlers and baggers
Aggravated assault victims
Male (68%)
White (77%); African american(19%)
16-24 years (17 per 100,000)
Never married (13 per 100,000)
Divorced/Separated (13 per 100,000)
Family income <$7,500 (20 per 1,000)
Urban resident (11 per 1,000)
One-Victim incident (90%)
Victim tried to protect self (74%)
Victim physically injured (25%)
Average rate (7.5 per 100,000)
Sociodemographic Characteristics of Offenders Overrepresented for Each Crime Type
Crime Type Sex Age Race Social Class
Prior Arrest?
Offense Spontaneous
Specialization Acts
Murder & Assault Male
< 25
African American
Lower Class Yes No Yes
Sexual Assault Male < 25 African
American Lower Class
Yes Some Mixed Personal & Institutional Robbery
Male < 25 African
American Lower Class
Yes No No
Residential & Nonresidential Burglary
Male < 25 African
American Lower Class Yes No Mixed
Motor Vehicle Theft
Male < 21 African
American Mixed Yes Some Mixed
Occupational Crime
Male > 25 White Lower, Middle Class
No Some No
Organizational Crime Male > 25 White
Upper Class No Some No
Public Order Crime
Both < 25 African
American Lower Class
Yes Mixed Mixed
Time and Place Elements of Crime Profiles
Crime Type Night/Day Season Location Type of Area
Murder Night Summer Victim's Home Low Income Aggravated Assault Night Summer Street Low Income Sexual Assault (Rape) Night Summer Victim s Home Low Income
Personal Robbery Day Summer Early Fall
Near Victim's Home.
Business Low Income
Institutional Robbery Night Summer Early Fall
Business Central City
Residential Burglary Day Summer Victim's Home Low Income Nonresidential Night Summer Business Low Income Burglary
Motor Vehicle Theft Night Summer Near Victim's
Home Central City
Occupational Crime Don't Know Don't Know Work Don't Know Organizational Crime Don't Don't Know Work Don't Know Public Order Crime Night All Don't Know All Types
Situational Elements of Crime Profiles
Crime Type Motivation Victim-Offender
Relationship Percentage
Co-Offenders Alcohol/ Drag Use
Victim Contribution
Murder & Aggravated Assault
Expressive Nonstranger < 50% > 50% 20-50%
Sexual Assault (Rape)
Both Expressive & Instrumental Nonstranger < 10% > 50% < 10%
Personal & Institutional Robbery Instrumental Strangers > 33% > 50% < 10%
Residential & Nonresidential Burglary
Instrumental Strangers < 50% 50% < 20%
Motor Vehicle Theft Both Expressive & Instrumental
Strangers > 50% 50% < 20%
Occupational & Organizational Crime Instrumental
Strangers & Nonstrangers < 10% < 50 % < 10%
Public Order Crime Both Expressive & Instrumental N/A > 50% > 50% N/A
Routine Activity Theory
Cohen, Felson (195…) “Opportunity makes the thief” RAT argues that when a crime occurs,
three things happen at the same time and in the same space:
• 1. a suitable target is available• 2. there is the lack of a suitable guardian to
prevent the crime from happening• 3. motivated offender is present
A Suitable Target
The first condition for crime is that a suitable target must be available
There are three major categories of target:
a person an object a place
Potential Targets
Four things make a target suitable to an offender and these use the acronym VIVA:
Value. The offenders value the target for what they gain or value the effect they have on it
For example, a burglary might occur because the burglar wants the stolen items or wants the money made from selling them
Offender might damage a bus stop, because he/she gets satisfaction (value)
Potential Targets
Inertia. The size or weight of an item can effect how suitable it is. For example, items such as CDs and watches are suitable targets for shoplifters because they are small and portable.
Visibility. How visible a target is can affect its suitability. For example, items left in view of a window or someone counting money near a cash point machine are visible targets.
Access. If a target is easy to get to, this increases its suitability. So, goods displayed outside shops, or someone walking through a deserted street alone at night are accessible.
Absence of a Capable Guardian
A capable guardian is anything, either a person or thing, that discourages crime from taking place
Police patrols, security guards, Neighbourhood Watch schemes, locks, fences, barriers, lighting, alarm systems, vigilant staff and co-workers, friends
A guardian can be present, but ineffective. For example a CCTV camera is not a capable guardian if it is set up or sited wrongly
Staff might be present in a shop, but may not have sufficient training or awareness to be an effective deterrent
Likely Offenders
Gain/Need: poverty, to feed a drug habit, greed.
Society/Experience/Environment: living in a culture where crime is acceptable, because of peer pressure, coercion, lack of education, poor employment prospects, envy, as a rebellion against authority.
Beliefs: a belief that crime in general or particular crimes aren’t wrong, as a protest on a matter of principle, prejudice against certain minority/ethnic groups.
The offender profile in burglary
Male (88%) White (68%), African American (30%) <25 years old (64%) Prior arrest record (79%) Prior felony arrest record (68%) Little offense specialization
The victim profile in household
burglary Highest
<19 years old head of household
African American/Latino Income<$15,000 Urban resident Renter Six or more people in
households Resident for less than 6
months Multifamily unit
Lowest 65 or older head of
household White/non-Latino Income >$75,000 Rural/Suburban Owner Live alone Residents for more than
5years Single-family unit
Benett and Wright (1984)
Found that burglars use a variety of cues in selecting targets (empirical test of RAT)
“Surveillability” refers to the extent to which a house is overseen by neighbors or passerby
How to chose a target
“Signs of occupancy” (internal lightening, cars in a garage, seeing resident in the house, noise, voices)
“Accessibility” refers to easy of entry without detection (alarms, window and door bars, security entrances, etc)
Empirical Validity of RAT
Sherman (1989) “hot spots” study He focused on “criminology of place”
and used Minneapolis police “call data” Most crime reports (calls) came from
only 3% of all locations in the city Those places attracted offenders
(absence of guardians)
Evaluation of RAT
RAT is not a theory of criminal behavior, it is a theory of criminal victimization
Theory does not explain why some persons are motivated to commit crime
Does not explain why informal/formal control exercised to prevent crime
It just assumes that informal/formal guardians are not present or able to prevent crime, then crime will occur
Theory of common sense (Akers, 2000) Sit at home, watch television, decrease chance of being
victimized