U.S. Advisory Period1954-1963

U.S.-Reactions to Geneva Saw Geneva agreement as a serious setback

and a victory for communists. U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).Loose alliance between Great Britain, U.S., France, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan.Created an “umbrella” of protection for Indochina and other Southeast Asian nations.Lacked military muscle-only required consulting with members, not military response.

Decided to support Ngo Dinh Diem in the south.Devout Catholic family, had once studied for the priesthood before becoming a mandarin.Vietnamese patriot who hated both the French and the communists.Had once met Ho Chi Minh, who had asked him to join his government.In 1954 the U.S. looked for a leader they could support, Diem appealed to the U.S. (anti-communist).Bao Dai appointed him premier in June 1954.

Diem concerned about the elections called for in the Geneva Accords.

Feared victory by Ho Chi Minh. French-U.S.-Diem conflicts.

U.S. feared France was creating ties with Hanoi to protect investments.France rejected membership in the European Defense Community.French officials were encouraging Diem opponents.France upset that the U.S. was trying to replace them.Diem was pro-U.S. and anti-French.– U.S. support saved Diem from opponents.

800,000 civilians moved south under the provisions of the Geneva Agreement (600,000 Catholic).

Diem settled them in strategic areas (Saigon and Central Highlands) to gain support.Migration supported by Diem, French, U.S. and the Church.– Catholic population in the south doubled (10% of

population).Native southerners resented them.

With U.S. help, Diem outmaneuvered his political enemies to consolidate power.

With this maneuvering, French were beginning to exit (by March 1956, they are completely out).

– With French exit, Diem was free to eliminate Bao Dai.– Called for referendum (October 23, 1955).

Diem defeated Bao Dai with 98.2% of the vote (U.S. told him to settle for 60%).

Diem received political support from:– Catholic population.– Small but influential group of wealthy planters.– Vietnamese serving in government, police, and army.– Urban middle class, newly created by massive flow of

funds from U.S.Prevented industrialization (cheap imports).Artificial economy (U.S. taxpayers).Remained in urban areas (did not

reach rural areas, 90% of population).

July 1956- Vietnam wide elections were to be held as called for at Geneva.

Diem announced they would not be held in the south (U.S. backed decision).

– North outnumbered the south (14 to 11 million).– Certain victory for Ho Chi Minh (80%).– Justified by the fact that the south did not sign the

agreement (neither did the U.S.). – Believed Diem’s government was the true unification

movement.

Ho Chi Minh-Reaction to Geneva

Communist conversion in north accomplished easily. Economic problems plagued Ho’s government.

Most of the fighting had taken place in the north.When the French pulled out, they took the industry and skilled workers.Agricultural productivity low (south was the traditional “breadbasket”).

– Emergency loan from Soviets averted famine in 1955. Government modeled after Marxist-Leninist example.

Politburo held power (Executive Directorate headed by Ho).Opposition parties forbidden.

January 1, 1955-Ho announced that the time had come to implement communist principles (economic and social reorganization).

Rebuilding the economy, started with transportation and communications (connected North Vietnam with China and Soviets).

– Chinese spent 225 million over the next 5 years to industrialize North Vietnam (China wanted friendly nation on southern border).

– Ho used Soviet model to industrialize.– Ho played Chinese and Soviets off each other to

remain independent of each.

To increase agriculture, they took land away from the wealthy and redistributed it to peasants, followed by collectivization of farms.

– Created violence in countryside as “land reformers” and social revolutionaries zealously took land (and in many cases killed land owners).

– Uproar led to rebellion, Ho put down then “apologized”.

Ho expected the 1956 elections to be held and he expected to win.

Received no backing when Diem refused to hold them and he was not ready to challenge the U.S. at that time.

U.S. Support of South Vietnam By 1958, there were 1,500 Americans in South Vietnam. Aid made up largest share of U.S. foreign aid budget. MAAG assigned responsibility for training ARVN (Army

of Republic of Vietnam).

Challenging.– Poorly equipped and trained.– Diem promoted on political reasons instead of military

ability.– Senior leadership lacked patriotism, many fought for the

French and some were French citizens (no resistance to French).

– Corrupt.U.S. advisors trained officers, trimmed officer corps from 250,000 to 150,000 and supplied with new weapons.

– Diem still insisted on selecting commanders.Problem-ARVN trained for the wrong mission.– Trained for cross-border invasion by the North, not for

internal subversive rebellion.

By late 1950’s, U.S. had pumped over 1 billion into South Vietnam.

Repaired war damaged roads, railroads and increased agriculture, schools, public health, police, and public administrators.

By late 1950’s, nation building appeared to be a huge success.

Underlying Problems in South Vietnam

Diem did not enact true democratic reform and held true power.

Held power of appointment all the way to the village level.

– Why?Concept of authoritarian.Concerned Viet Minh

might win if elections allowed.

Ironically, Diem and Ho Chi Minh developed similar governmental systems.

Diem’s government filled with a large number of northerners and Catholics.

Southerners resented, prevented Diem government from winning trust and loyalty of southern peasants.

Relied heavily on family.Ngo Dinh Nhu became Chief of National Police.

– Speared drive to eliminate communists (became all opposition).

Other brothers and relatives hold high offices. Diem was his own man.

Believed the U.S. would support him unconditionally as long as he appeared anti-communist.

Communist Opposition in South

During movement under the Geneva Agreements, 50 to 90,000 Viet Minh moved north (10 to 15,000 remained behind to maintain apparatus).

Did not anticipate:– Rapid decline of French forces.– Rapid emergence of a strong Diem government with

strong U.S. support.– Did not anticipate that the 1956 elections would not be

held.Before 1956, they caused Diem little political problems.– Upset when elections not held but there was little they

could do as Soviets and China did not demand elections and Hanoi was to weak to act alone.

Majority of Vietnamese wanted a single, unified Vietnam. U.S. never seemed to understand that an independent South Vietnam backed by U.S. was not desirable to any Vietnamese.3 political groups emerge.– Supporters of Diem and U.S.– Supporters of Viet Minh and a reunified Vietnam

under Ho Chi Minh.– Supporters of a reunified Vietnam governed by

neither Diem or Ho Chi Minh.

With cancellation of the ’56 elections, southern communists wanted renewal of guerilla actions but got no support.

Ho to busy trying to build his own nation, could not risk U.S. intervention.Soviets wanted to establish more ties with the West and China did not want U.S. intervention.

Throughout 1957 & ’58, southern communists acted in isolated pockets.

Hurt severely by “communist hunts” of Ngo Dinh Nhu’s police force and ARVN forces.

May 1959, northerners established a base in Central Highlands to organize resistance and conduct limited guerilla warfare.

Also established a transportation unit to move supplies and people south (Ho Chi Minh Trail).

In 1959 & ’60, intensity of the conflict between Diem’s forces and revolutionary guerilla forces increased.

Insurgents began to gain upper hand in some traditional revolutionary strongholds.Diem struck back, implemented strategic hamlet program (Agrovilles) to control revolutionaries.

– Segregated peasant population from guerillas by placing them in “fortified” villages.

– Upset peasants, taken off ancestral lands.– Program run by Colonel Pham Ngoc Thao,

later found to be a communist agent.– By the end of 1960, program was a failure.

Third Party Congress held in Hanoi, September 1960.2 goals:– Complete the socialist revolution in North Vietnam.– Liberate South Vietnam to complete revolution.

Approved plans to reorganize revolutionary movement in the south.

– February 15, 1961; guerillas organized under People’s Liberation Armed Front (PLAF).17,000 troops.Under command of a southerner, Tran LoungCreated a Central Committee for the South (U.S. called it

COSVN-Central Office for South Vietnam).PLAF became known as “Viet Cong” (Diem called then

“Viet Nam Cong-san”, Vietnamese who are communist).

– Creation of National Liberation Front (NLF).Reunification of Vietnam.Branched from Central Committee at the top to village

administrators at the bottom.Most leadership not communist.

Communists do however control Central Committee.Hanoi wanted appearance of no influence to encourage

popular support.Appeared as broad political spectrum support with goal

of expelling U.S., replacing Diem with a democratic government, and working toward peaceful reunification.

– Hanoi hoped to avoid confrontation with the U.S. by disguising involvement.

U.S. forced to switch training from conventional to counter-insurgency.

Complicated by different opinions (some in U.S. wanted to force Diem to create real change vs. many who wanted Diem to remain strong).U.S. election also complicated issue (Eisenhower leaving and Kennedy coming in).Civil war in Laos.

Kennedy’s War World an unsafe place as Kennedy took charge (Bay of Pigs). Laos embroiled in civil war (right wing government of General

Phoumi Nosavan vs. communist Pathet Lao).Agreement signed July 23, 1962 made Laos a neutral country.Broken immediately by all sides (Ho Chi Minh Trail and CIA support of Meo tribes).

Changed Cold War strategy to “flexible response”.Increased importance of Third World Countries in confronting communism.Increased commitment to South Vietnam.Development of the Green Berets (Special Forces with a training mission)-400 sent.

November 3, 1961; General Maxwell Taylor reported a pessimistic future in Vietnam.

Many in U.S. government doubted the ability of Diem to win, left the choice of increasing commitment or negotiating a settlement.

– Negotiated settlement a political impossibility (Bay of Pigs, Berlin Wall, etc.).

Diem wanted increased financial support, equipment, and supplies, not U.S. combat troops.

U.S. increases in aid violated the Geneva Agreement but they “justified” it by North Vietnam’s increased involvement in the south.

U.S. aid tied to demands that Diem reform government and broaden base of support.Diem refused to change because he believed the U.S. was committed to him unconditionally.

Through 1962, the fighting between the Viet Cong and ARVN forces increased.

U.S. advisors and pilots increased combat missions-casualties increased.Serious issues came to light (political army, lack of peasant support, etc.).

Social Revolution Begins in South

NLF organized peasants, appealed to traditional values vs. strategic hamlet.

Viewed as liberators. American journalists began to

question GVN (Government of Vietnam) optimism.

1963 Relationship between U.S. and GVN

deteriorated.Diem alarmed by rapid buildup of U.S. forces.U.S. upset about no democratic reforms.– Advisors began recommending pull-out.

May 10, 1963-Buddhist demonstrations increased.

June 11, a Buddhist monk, Thich Quang Duc, immolated himself in protest.

August 21, Nhu organized a series of raids on Buddhist pagodas.

Kennedy outraged.ARVN generals began to plot overthrow of Diem.

GVN quickly spiraling out of control.U.S. unable to get a handle on the situation, many different opinions and advice.Coup seemed likely.– U.S. position, “do not support but do not stop”.

November 1, 1963-coup began.Diem and Nhu captured and executed.

– New government headed by Lt. General Duong Van Minh)

Kennedy shocked at murders.Ho feared that the new government would gain broader base of peasant support (General Minh was a Buddhist).

November 22, 1963-Kennedy assassinated.Seemed likely not to expand war.Many believe that after the ‘64 election he was planning a withdrawal.Wanted to stop the Cold War (nuclear fear) and move toward a peaceful co-existence with the Soviet Union.

Reaction Question: Go Tell the Spartans

How did Go Tell the Spartans foreshadow the upcoming U.S. phase of the war?

(Be sure to use examples from the movie)