UnravellingDevoninvolvementinSlave-Ownership

LucyMacKeith

‘TheearlyhistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaowesmoretoDevonthantoanyother

Englishcounty.’

CharlesOwen(ed.),TheDevon-AmericanStory(1980)

MytaskthisafternoonistounravelDevon’sinvolvementinslave-ownership.Ihave

foundthetaskoverwhelmingbecauseofconstantlyfindingnewinformation–thereare

leadstofollowdownlittlebranchesoffamilytrees,thereareDevon’scountryhouses,a

wealthofdocuments,and–ofcourse–theinternet.

SothisisaVERYbriefintroductiontounravellingDevon’sinvolvementwithslave-

ownership–muchhasbeenleftout.Let’sstartwithEliasBall.HisstoryisinSlavesin

theFamily,writtenbydescendantEdwardBallandpublishedin1998.

EliasBallbyJeremiahTheus(1716-1774).

‘EliasBall,...wasbornin1676inatinyhamletinwesternEnglandcalled

Stokeinteignhead.HeinheritedaplantationinCarolinaattheendofthe

seventeenthcentury...Hislifeshowshowonefamilyenteredtheslavebusiness

inthebirthhoursofAmerica.Itisatalecomposedequallyofchance,choiceand

blood.’

ThebookhasmanyDevonlinks–anenslavedwomancalledJennyBullerremindsusof

RedversBuller’sfamily,ahillinoneoftheBallplantationscalled‘HallidonHill’reminds

usofHaldonHilljustoutsideExeter;twofamilymembersreturntoEngland,oneafter

theAmericanWarofIndependence.ThiswasColonelWambawEliasBallwhohadbeen

involvedintradinginenslavedAfricansinCarolina.Hewaspaid£12,700sterlingfrom

theBritishTreasuryandalifetimepensionincompensationfortheslaveshehadlostin

thewarofindependence.Wesometimesforgetaboutthistrancheofcompensation

paymentstoBritishslaveowners.

EdwardBall’sdescriptionoftheaccentofoneoftheBalls’blackdescendantssounds

likeaDevonianaccent:thespeaker’sgreatgrandmotherwasthoughttohavebeenborn

inBarbadosin1820andJoannaTraynor’spaperhasexplainedsuchaDevon

connection.

WecanenvythewriterEdwardBallwhohadsuchacollectionofpapersfromwhichto

writehisfamilyhistoryinsuchexquisitedetail.YoucangoonlineandhearEdwardBall

lectureonthissubject.Irecommenditfortheissuesitraises.Butitisraretohave

accesstosuchcomprehensiverecords.

Dopeopleleavetidyevidenceforhistorianstowriteuplater?Sadlynot.Wehaveto

scrabblearoundandpiecetogetherwhatwecanfind.Andsomeimportantsourcesof

evidenceaboutthehistoryofDevonSlave-ownershiparelost.

Theearthquakeon7June1692atPortRoyalinJamaicadestroyedthesettlement.Who

knowswhatevidenceofDevoninvolvementwaslostthroughthatevent?Onlyhalfa

dozenoftheRoyalCustomsBooksandafewoftheCityPettyCustomsBooksforExeter

stillexist.Theywouldhaveprovidedrichinformation.TheExeterProbateOfficewas

bombedin1942soearlyDevonwillsaremissing–anotherrichsourceofmaterial

unavailable.

Itisunlikelythatwewillsuddenlycomeacrosspreviouslyunseenmaterials–though

wecanliveinhope!Butifwelookatmaterialswealreadyhavefromadifferentangle

thanearlierhistorians,wewilluncovernewthreadsinthehistory.

Take,forexample,TheVisitationsofDevon(1895)byLieut-Col.J.L.Vivian.It’sthe

recordofthecoatsofarmsofnobilityandgentryandtheirfamilytreesoftheC16thand

C17th.Itisasortof‘upperclasscensus’.Inthisdocument,ofover900pages,thereare

examplesoffamilymemberslivinginBarbados,Jamaica,SouthCarolina,America,

Boston,Nevis,StKittsandVirginia,oftentheyoungersons.

Thecompensationpaymentsagreedinthe1833ActofAbolitionhasbeenthefocusof

theUCLproject.However,bythattime,alotofinvestmentinslaveshadbeen

transformed,exchangedforinvestmentinotherpartsoftheglobeandineducationand

trainingtojointheprofessionalclassesandonbuyingaplaceamongstthepowerfulin

Devon(andelsewhere)bybuyingandbuildinglargehouses.Thishasmeantthatthe

earlyinvolvementofDevon’sfamiliesinslaveownershiphasbeenobscured.

The‘HeritageIndustry’presentstouristswithasentimentalised,sanitisedand

comfortableviewofthepast.Slave-ownershipisnota‘comfortable’componentinour

past–nowonderitoftengetsleftout.

BucklandFilleighHouse,Devon,watercolourof1797byRev.JohnSwete.Thehouseburneddownthefollowingyearandwasrebuiltc.1810byJohnInglettFortescue.

ThewealthoftheSwetefamilyfromModburyinSouthDevoncamefromtheirestatesin

AntiguaandpassedtoJohnTripein1781onconditionthathechangedhisnameto

Swete.Hispaintingsofhouses–someofthembuiltontheprofitsofslave-ownership–

areverymuchpartofour‘DevonHeritage’.Hisinheritancegavehimtheleisureto

travelandpaint.ThisparticularwatercolourbytheRevJohnSweteisofBuckland

Filleigh,thehomeoftheFortescuefamilywhohadinterestsontheIslandofStVincent

throughmarriage.

WefindmaterialinDevonrelatingtootherpartsofBritain(forexample-theGale-

MorantpapersatExeterUniversitySpecialCollectionswhichprovidethebasisofthe

2006‘WhoseHistoryIsIt?’exhibition).Ontheotherhandwefindarchivesrelatingto

thehistoryofthelegacyofDevon’sslave-ownershipwhicharenotsittingcomfortably

andeasilyaccessibleintheDevonHeritageCentreatSowton,ontheoutskirtsofExeter.

Forexample,in1984theLondonRecordSocietypublished‘TheLettersofJohnPaige,

LondonMerchant,1648-58’:

‘Likemostofthe'newmerchants',PaigewasaLondoneronlybyadoption.Hismigration

fromStokeFleminginDevon,wherehewasborninabout1627,wasoneinstanceinan

establishedpatternofmobilitywhichhadhadconsequencesforLondon'strade...(Other

westcountryfamiliesalso)senttheirsonstoLondoninthesixteenthcentury.

Forme,thisraisesthequestionoflocal,national,worldhistorylinksinlookingatthe

legaciesofBritishslave-ownership.

Inthepast‘localhistory’hasmeantthestudyofparticularlocalsubjects–agricultural

practices,craftskillsanddomesticaccountsinahermeticallysealedgeographically

strictlylimitedarea–incontrasttothestudyofthebigissuesofnationaland

internationalhistorywhichwerestudiedquiteseparately.Ifwewanttounderstand

howthedifferentelementsofhistoryconnectandinfluenceeachotherweneedtoknit

thesethreadstogether,asSylviaCollicottdidinher1986bookConnectionsHaringey

Local–National–WorldLinks.

SomewiderthreadsinthehistoryofDevoniansinthelegacyofBritishslave-ownership

include:

• TheEnglishcolonisationofIreland

• TheNewfoundlandfishingindustry

• ThegrowthoftradeandcoloniesintheAmericas

• AndtheclosetieswiththeDutchprovinceswhichwereconfirmedfrom1688

whenWilliamofOrangewasinvitedtotakeoverthethrone.

ThecolonisationofIrelandgavetheinvadingEnglishtheopportunitynotonlytocarve

outwealthbytakingoverIrishlandsbutalsogavethemaccesstotheenforcedlabourof

Irishpeople.TherearemanyrecordsofwealthyDevoniansinIrelandinVivian’s

Visitationsandonchurchmemorials.

ThepicturesqueEggesfordchurchcanbeseenfromtrainsontheTarkaLine(theNorth

Devonrailway,whichincidentallywaspartlyfundedbycompensationmoniesfollowing

theActof1833).ThechurchhousestwoornatememorialstotheChichesterfamily

(whomarriedintotheFortescuefamilywhosehomeatBucklandFilleighwaspainted

bytheRevJohnSwete.SwetealsopaintedEggesfordHouseacoupleoftimes).The

EnglishpractisedtheirtechniquesofcolonisationinIreland.

MonumenttothewivesofArthurChichester,1stEarlofDonegal(1606-1674/5),EggesfordChurch,Devon.

TheNewfoundlandfishingindustryprovidedpreserved/driedfishforbothhome

consumptionandintheAmericas.‘Saltfish’isastapleinCaribbeancuisine.Inthe

seventeenthcenturyhouseholdaccountsoftheEarlofBathatTawstockinNorthDevon

andtheReynellfamilyofForde‘Canadafish’,‘Nulandfish’,‘dryfish’and‘PoorJohns’

featureregularly.

ThegrowthoftradewiththeAmericasastheplantationsdevelopedchangedexisting

patternsoftradeandconsumptioninDevonandbeyond.Thesamehouseholdaccounts

asabovelistpurchasesofsugar–28lbsfor£113sonFriday30November1627forSir

RichardandLadyLucyReynellofFordeandtheTawstockaccountslist‘PaidMrGeorge

ShurteofBiddefordforaquarterofahundredofsugarat13dperpound011[s]04[d]’.

Itisinterestingtonotethat‘JamestheBlackamoor’earnedwagesof£4ayear–ontop

ofboard,clothesandlodging–ascooktotheEarlofBathinTawstock,Devon,inthe

1640s.Doesthisindicateanassociationofthehouseholdwithslave-ownership?

ThelateLisaJardine’sbookGoingDutchexaminesthecloserelationship–political,

economicandcultural–betweenBritainandHolland,arelationshipwhichhasbeen

underestimated.TheDutchstylehousesinTopshammanifestDutchinfluencein

Devon.IntheExeterMilitarysurveyof1522morethanathirdofthe66‘aliens’listed

wereDutch.BritishmerchantsappreciatedthattheDutchwerehighlydevelopedin

theirtradingpracticesanddevelopmentofmoderncapitalism–completewithastock

exchangeinAmsterdam.Thegentryherefoundthisveryattractiveandsupported

WilliamofOrange’sclaimtothethronein1688.

ExampleofaDutchhouseinTopsham,Devon.

The‘200Blacks’whowerepartofWilliamofOrange’sentourageasheprocessedfrom

BrixhamtoLondontoclaimthethronein1688arenowquitewellknown.Lesswell

knownistheleadstatueofanAfricanwhichusedtobeinagardenabout6milesfrom

Exeter.WilliamofOrangehimselfplacedthefirstorderforthisstatueforHampton

Palaceanditwasrecordedasthemostpopularofalltheleadgardenstatuesmadein

BritainintheeighteenthcenturyandisasymptomoftheadoptionofDutchculture.

ThisimageofanAfricanwasaveryparticularlegacyofBritishslave-ownershipin

Devon.

BlackpeoplemarchfromBrixhamtoLondon.FromabroadsheetaccountofWilliamofOrangearrivinginExeteron17October1688.

Anexampleofa‘Blackamoor’gardenstatue.

Sometimeswecanmisinterpretevidence.SirJohnHawkins’coatofarmsincludesan

Africanfigure/Africanfiguresandthishasbeeninterpretedasacknowledgingwhere

hiswealthcamefrom.ButwhatoftheAfricanheadsonacoatofarmsintheNational

TrustpropertyAlaRonde,nearExeter,builtbytwowomen,cousinsintheParminter

family,ontheirreturnfromtheGrandTourinEurope.ThecoatofarmsoftheHurlock

family,withAfricanheads,isondisplayinthelibraryatAlaRonde.Ihavebeenvery

firmlytoldthat‘ThefamilyhadnoconnectionswiththeSlaveTrade.’

AndindeedthereareOTHERexplanationsfortheheadsofAfricansoncoatsofarmsnot

relatedtoslave-ownership.Theyaredescribedas‘MoorsHeads’bytheCollegeof

Heraldsanddatebacktothe13thcenturyinBritishHeraldry.

However–thereAREconnectionswithAlaRondeandSlave-ownership.

TheParminterfamilyoriginallycamefromBidefordinNorthDevonwheretheywere

merchants.JohnParminterhelpedfinanceashipcalledElizabethtotheGuineacoastin

1700.TheParmintershadconnectionsbymarriagewiththeRolle,WalrondandBaring

families,allinvolvedwithslave-ownership.

Left:JohnHawkins’coatofarms.

Below:AlaRonde,nearExeter.

Belowleft:thecoatofarmsoftheHurlockfamilyondisplayinthelibraryatAlaRonde.

AnotherbackgroundfactortoexplaintheinterestinplantationsintheAmericasfor

Devonianswastheeconomicsituation:eighteenthcenturyBritishfarmswereless

productivethanWestIndiansugarestates:one300acresugarestatecouldmake

£7,000pawhereasone250acreestateinEnglandonlymade£2,000pa.Itwasano-

brainerifyouwantedtomakemoney.

Theideaofthetriangulartradeisaconstructofhistorians.Whileitisusefultoexplain

muchaboutthetransatlanticslavetrade,itdoesnotfullydescribeallthetradepatterns

oftheearlyDevoninvolvementinslave-ownership.

TheJohnBurwellBook,intheDevonRecordOffice,listsvoyagesmadebyDevonships

in1699and1700.CargolistsincludeTobacco,EnglishSpirit,Beans,GuineaGrain,Cloth,

IronBarrs,Gunpowderandmore.DestinationsincludeGuinea,EastIndia,Callibar,

ShidakoffcoastofGuinea.Youcanseethatthe‘EastIndies’meansthelistedvoyageis

notsimplyfollowingtheTriangularTradepattern.

TheJohnBurwellBooklistscolumnsoffigureslookslikeadivisionofsharesfroma

voyage:

GodfreyWebster750Jnata129

JonathanLow250““43

DanwellJemin?aud600““103-4-0

CapWmKetch400““68-16-0

ClaudJominson600““103-4-0

Tho&JohStark1000““172-0-0

ClaudHay?s120““120-8-0

LanGaldy700““206-8-0

JohDenson600““103-4-0

------------------

61001049-04-0

‘Janata’isthenameofaBangladeshibanktodaysoIsuspectitisanEastIndian

currency.NickDraperhassuggestedthattherighthandcolumnisthesamemoney

expressedin£sd,perhapsprofitsfromajourney?

AnothersectionofJohnBurwell’sBookgivesanaccountof‘GoodsBroughtandSoldat

Morandoros1698/9’.Whetheritisatapointofpurchaseorsale,itseemsclearthat

theseareenslavedpeople:

GoodsboughtandSoldatMorandoros1698/9

Men 98

Women 71

Boys 37

Girls 9

215

WehaveanideaofwhatshipsinvolvedintheTransatlanticSlaveTradecarried.The

frameworkoftheTriangularTradeidentifiesbeads,firearms,cloth,alcoholand

manufacturedgoodstravellingfromEuropetoAfrica;enslavedmen,womenand

childrenfromAfricatotheAmericas;andthenproductsoftheplantations,including

sugar,rumandmolassesfromtheAmericasbacktoEurope.Whatismissingfromthese

lists–withoutwhichthewholeenterprisewouldhavefailed?

Theprosaic–requirementsforeverydayliving–food,pottery,clothing,shoes,toolsand

itemssuchasnails,shacklestocontroltheenslaved–ahundredveryordinarythings,

plustheluxuryitemsforthewealthyplantationownerswantingtomaintaintheirway

ofliving.Whoprovidedtheseitems?Theinvoicebelowprovidesanexampleofgoods

firstshippedfromExetertoLondonandthensentontoJamaica.

Invoiceisfor‘sixcasesofshoesand

pumps’aswellascloth,shippedto

Jamaica.Mostofthecargowere

kersiesandlongells,clothmadein

Tavistock.

Plantationeconomiesarebasedonagriculturalmassproductionofcropsgrownon

largefarmscalledplantations.Plantationeconomiesrelyontheexportofcashcropsas

asourceofincome.Theyareoftendependentonthemetropolitancountryforessentials

forliving.Itisoneofthewaysthecolonisingcountriesmakemoremoney.

Themapbelowreflectsthecomplexityofthetraderoutesrelatingtoslave-ownership.

ItisinadequateasitidentifiesthetraderoutesonlytothenorthernstretchofWest

Africaandisstillsimplified.Ifounditoninternetandhavenoprovenanceforit.

However,whatIlikeaboutitisthecomplexityofthepatternsoftradeinwhichit

demonstratestheinvolvementofBritish,includingDevontraders,beyondthe

triangularidea.

SomeexamplesoftradebetweenDevonandtheAmericasfromnewspapersinclude:

24January1670Barnstable.YesterdayarrivedheretheEXCHANGEbelongingtothisport,

JOHNMARKES,Master,fromLysbonne,ladenwithSugar....

April21686Barnstable..OnWednesdaylastsailedfromhencenineshipsboundfor

Newfoundland..OurVirginiashipsarenotyetarrived.....

April111709ThisdaycameintheBRITANNIAofBarnstaple,JohnMALLACK,Master,in

30daysfromVirginia....

24June1698:Plymouth...thisdayarrivedheretheHannahofBiddifordwithSugarfrom

theBarbados....

InthePlymouthMuseumcollectionisafineexampleoftheapparatusforanAfrican

game–knownvariouslyasayo,mancala,bara.Ontheothersideoftheboardisa

carvingofamanholdingaflintlockamongstotherdetailedcarvings.Ihavenoevidence

offlintlockgunsbeingmanufacturedinDevonbutwehaverecordsthatDevonians

tradedingunsandgunpowderonslavetradingexpeditions.Thisarmstradecreated

destabilisationinAfricathroughouttheyearsofslavetrading.Westernimportsof

weaponsalteredthebalanceofpowerinAfrica.Stilltoday‘thearmsbusinesshasa

devastatingimpactonhumanrightsandsecurity,anddamageseconomicdevelopment.’

Thisisanotherlegacyofslave-ownership.

TwosideimagesofamancalaboardfromPlymouthMuseum.Notethecarvingofamanholdinga

flintlockinthelowerimage.

WeneedtobeimaginativeinunravellingthehistoryofthelegacyofDevonandSlave-

ownershipandIdonotmeanthatweshouldmakethingsup.Thelackofeasein

interpretingevidencedoesnotmeanthatnothinghappened.Evidencehassometimes

beenobscuredinthepast.

Alocalresearcheroncewrotethistome:

‘AsregardsthelocalfamilyIdidalittleresearchon;itwastheWalrondfamily

whopurchasedDulfordHouse,formerlyknownasMontrathHouse,near

Cullompton.Theirfortunewasmade,overseveralgenerations,inAntigua.Imust

addthatIhavenodirectevidencethattheyhadslaves,butIdoubtwhetherthey

madetheirfortunefromthefruitoftheirownmanuallabour!’

Thereareinterpretationsofhistoryindifferentartformssuchaspaintingandwriting.

Formetheyareaninspirationtounravelthestoryfurther.

Turner’spainting,TheSlaveShip,waspaintedinresponsetothestoryoftheZong

TheSlaveShipbyWBTurner

Originaltitle–ThrowingtheDeadandDyingOverboard

FredD’AguiarwroteFeedingtheGhostsinresponsetothesamestoryabouttheZong.

ThiswasashipwhichwascarryingenslavedpeoplefromAfricatotheAmericaswhen

thecaptaininstructedthecrewtothrowsomeofthosepeopleoverboardbecauseit

madebetterfinancialsensetoclaimfortheirlossthroughtheirinsurancepolicythanto

letthemstayalive.

FredD’Aguiarendsthebookwiththesewords:

‘Wewerealldead.Theshipwasfullofghosts.Allthecrueltieswesustainedwere

maintainedbyus.

...Ihavealistofnames.Iknowwhodidwhattowhom.Butmydetailedknowledge

hasmadenotaniotaofdifferencetohistoryortothesea.Alltheknowledgehas

doneistoburdenme.

Iaminyourcommunity,inacottageoranapartmentorcardboardbox,tucked

awayinaquietcorner,ruminatingovertheseverythings.TheZongisonthehigh

seas.Men,womenandchildrenarethrownoverboardbythecaptainandhiscrew.

Oneofthemisme.Oneofthemisyou.Oneofthemisdoingthethrowing,theother

isbeingthrown.I’mnotsurewhoiswho,youorI.

.....Thereisnofear,norshameinthispieceofinformation.Thereisonlythefactof

theZonganditsunendingvoyageandthosedeathsthatcannotbeundone............

Wheredeathhasbegunbutremainsunfinishedbecauseitrecurs...........Theghosts

feedonthestoryofthemselves.

Thepastislaidtorestwhenitistold.’

Selectbibliography

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Collicott,Sylvia,Connections:Haringey,local-national-worldlinks(1986)

D’Aguiar,Fred,FeedingtheGhosts(2014)

Eyres,Patrick,etal.,TheBlackamoorandtheGeorgianGarden(2011)

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ReynellofForde;Pt.2Henry,FifthEarlofBath,andRachel,CountessofBath,ofTawstock

andLondon(1996)

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(1970)

MacKeith,Lucy,etal,TraditionandtheYorubaArtist–catalogueforthesummer

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availableathttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/london-record-soc/vol21

CampaignAgainsttheArmsTradewebsite:https://www.caat.org.uk/