Post on 25-Sep-2019
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I N T O H I S T O R Y
A Column with a Story
Pg 7
Trajan’s Letters—
Survived! Pg 26
Behind the Scenes—with
an Axe Pg 45
All Hail to the Chief Pg 2
TRAJANOctober 2016 $4.95 USRome’s Princeps Optimus
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1 Map: The Roman Empire at Its Height, a.d. 117
11 The Calliope Chronicles 24 Fun With Words 34 Fast Forward—The Virtuous Pagan by Mark Rose
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LET’S GO -GING FUN & GAMES 43 Rattle Finds at Ur 44 Archaeology in the Lab by Marie-Claude Boileau, Tessa de Alarcon,
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45 Behind the Scenes with CAAM 51 On Site with CAAM 53 The Adventures of Dr. Dig 54 In the Lab with CAAM 56 In the Headlines—The Raven Pipe 57 Artifacts—A Little Bull
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EAGLE EYE
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2 Here Comes the Parade!
by Anthony Hollingsworth
4 The Road to Power
by Angela Murock Hussein
7 A Column That Talks
by Angela Murock Hussein
12 A Master at Engineering
by Mark Rose
14 Caution: Work Zone
by Mark Rose
18 Kiosk on Philae by Richard A. Lobban, Jr.
20 Legend of Dakia by Marina Debattista
20 The Alimenta by Emily Abbink
22 The Limits of Power
by Emily Abbink
26 What the Letters Reveal
by Anthony Hollingsworth
30 Meet Plotina by Liz Johnson
32 Princeps Optimus by Chaddie Kruger
We have hidden 4 eyes like the one above in this month’s DIG issue (print and digital edition). See
how fast you can find each—but, while you are
looking, check out the articles in this issue.
And, don’t take a peek at the answers on page 41 until you have found all
four eagle eyes!
illustration by Tim Oliphant
STAFF: Rosalie F. Baker Editor, Nicole Welch Art Director, Patrick Murray Designer, James M. O’Connor Director of Editorial, Christine Voboril Permissions Specialist, Stephen L. Thompson Copy Editor, Patricia Silvestro Proofreader; EDITORIAL CONSULTANT: Naomi Pasachoff: Research Associate, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts; ADVISORY BOARD: Paul G. Bahn: Archaeologist and Author; Nancy S. Bernard: Archaeologist; Diane L. Brooks, Ed.D.: Director (retired), Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Office, California Department of Education; Vaughn M. Bryant: Director, Palynology Laboratory in Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University; Ken Burns: Florentine Films; Ross E. Dunn: Professor of History, San Diego State University; Peter Feinman: Director, Institute of History, Anthropology and Education; Richard A. Gould: Chairman and Professor, Department of Anthropology, Brown University; Gordon Grimwade:
Archaeologist and Writer, Australia; A. Gwynn Henderson: Kentucky Archaeological Society; Donald James Johnson: Professor Emeritus, New York University; Jean Elliott Johnson: Teacher and Director (Retired) of the Asia Society’s TeachAsia Project; Martha S. Joukowsky: Professor Emerita, Brown University, Department of Anthropology Center for Old World Archaeology and Art; Director, Brown University Petra ‘Great’ Temple Excavations; Richard A. Lobban, Jr.: Archaeologist and Executive Director Sudan Studies Association; Elena Miklashevich: Kemerovo State University, Russia; Robert B. Pickering: Director of Curatorial Affairs and Public Programs, Gilcrease Museum, and Director, Museum Science and Management, University of Tulsa; Margarete Pruech: Art historian, Archaeologist, and Lecturer in East Asian Art; Joseph M. Pucci: Associate Professor of Classics, Medieval Studies, and Comparative Literature, Brown University; Heidi Roupp: Past President, World History Association; Shirley J. Schermer: Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa; KC Smith: Museum of Florida History; Sandra Stotsky: Professor of Education Reform, 21st Century Chair in Teacher Quality, University of Arkansas; Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis: Professor Emerita, Boston University, and Head of Birches School in Lincoln, Massachusetts
Emily Abbink, retired UCSC Lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing; Anthony Hollingsworth, professor of Classics, Roger Williams University; Angela Murock Hussein, archaeological consultant and post-doctoral researcher at the University of Tubingen; Liz Johnson, Master’s in Classics from Tufts University; Chaddie Kruger, teacher of Latin, Classical history, and mythology; Mark Rose, Classical archaeologist.
DIG would also like to thank Laboratory Coordinator Marie-Claude Boileau and her colleagues at the Center for the Analysis of Archaeological Materials (CAAM) at Penn Museum for all their work on the Let’s Go Digging section in this issue.
CONSULTING EDITORS
The Roman Empire at Its Height—a.d. 117
PICTURE CREDITS: Peter Hermes Furian/Shutterstock.com: 1; © Look and Learn/Bridgeman Images: 2, 27; Mizuri/Shutterstock.com: 4-5; View Apart/Shutterstock.com: 5 (top); Claudio Divizia: 5 (bottom); Gilmanshin/Shutterstock.com: 6 (middle); Only Fabrizio/Shutterstock.com: 6 (top); Andrei Nekrassov/Shutterstock.com: 6 (bottom); Matteo Gabrieli/Shutterstock.com: 7; Bridgeman Images: 8–9, 33 (bottom); Museo della Civilta Romana, Rome, Italy/Alinari/Bridgeman Images: 9, 10 (left); De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images: 10 (right); Lulu Filosofia Soekotjo/Shutterstock.com: 14–15, 16–17 (background), 18–19 (background); Ufuk ZIVANA/Shutterstock.com: 14–15 (background, top), 17 (bottom); De Agostini Picture Library/Bridgeman Images: 14–15 (background, bottom), 15 (background, top), 16 (both); Alinari/Bridgeman Images: 14 (background, top), 18 (right, top); Eduardo Estellez/Shutterstock.com: 14 (background, bottom), 18 (bottom); Album/Art Resource, NY: 15 (background, bottom); chip art/Shutterstock.com: 16 (icon), 17 (icons, both), 19 (icons, both); Federico Rostagno/Shutterstock.com: 17 (top); WitR/Shutterstock.com: 18 (left); WitR/Shutterstock.com: 19; Alinari/Art Resource, NY: 20; Dronathan/Shutterstock.com: 22–23 (background); Mary Evans Picture Library Ltd/agefotostock.com: 23; Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY: 28; Photo © CCI/Bridgeman Images: 29; © Peter Horree/Alamy: 30; vectormann/Shutterstock.com: 30 (background); De Agostini/G. Dagli OrtiCollection: De Agostini Editore/agefotostock.com: 32; De Agostini/G. CigoliniCollection: De Agostini Editore/agefotostock.com: 33 (top); Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome, Italy/Bridgeman Images: 33 (middle); Musee des Beaux-Arts, Marseille, France / Bridgeman Images: 34; Tupungato/Shutterstock.com: 35; © Chronicle/Alamy: 36; © Stan Pritchard/Alamy: 37; Sutichak/Shutterstock.com: 37 (background); © Penn Museum/Center for Analysis of Archaeological Materials [CAAM]: 44, 45 (both), 46 (left), 47 (top), 49 (all), 51, 52 (all), 53 (right), 54, 55 (right: top and bottom), 56 (bottom); © Penn Museum, image #14015: 45 (top); © Penn Museum object 35-1-416, image # 230892: 46 (right); © Penn Museum object 30-12-757, image #152119: 47 (middle); © Penn Museum object B16684.5, image #251056: 47 (bottom); © Penn Museum object B176948, image 250852: 48; © Penn Museum, image #B15706: 49 (top left); © Penn Museum object 31-17-404: 50; © Penn Museum object 30-12-551: 50 (inset); janaph/Shutterstock.com: 53 (left); © from the collection of Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma: 55 (top; top inset); © Penn Museum object 31-43-342: 55 (left); © Penn Museum object 31-12-392: 56 (middle); © Penn Museum object B16685, image #152065: 57; Jakub Krechowicz/Shutterstock.com: back cover (left); © Ivy Close Images (www.ivycloseimages.com): back cover (right). Cricket Media has made every effort to trace the copyrights of these images.
About the cover: “I’m ready!” That’s what the Roman emperor Trajan seems to be thinking here, as he stands before crowds of people and soldiers assembled in the magnificent forum he commissioned built in Rome. (illustration by Brad Walker)1While on the march, each
Roman soldier carried heavy equipment and supplies—each pack weighing about 60 pounds.
2Roman soldiers were not allowed to marry while
they served in the military.
3Roman soldiers also had to learn to swim, build,
and treat battle injuries.
4In order to build their strength, the equipment
with which Roman soldiers trained was heavier than necessary.
5The size of the Roman army differed through
the centuries. In Trajan’s time, it is thought to have totaled around 200,000 soldiers.
5 Amazing Army Facts
Mediterranean Sea
Black Sea
Atlantic Ocean GAUL
DACIA
PARTHIA
EGYPT
AFRICA
BRITANNIA
HISPANIARome
ITALY
GREECEMACEDONIA
ASIA MINOR
3
ALL IN PERFECT ORDEREvery parade began on the banks
of the Tiber River, at the western
edge of the city. Then, marching
eastward, it entered the Campus
Martius, passed around the Circus
Maximus, and headed toward the
Colosseum before turning back to
the Roman Forum. Marching
along the Via Sacra, the triumph
would finish on the Capitoline
Hill at the Temple of Jupiter
Optimus Maximus.
At the beginning of the parade
would have been the enemy
leaders followed by other
prisoners, the plundered loot, and
representations of battle scenes,
painted or reenacted by captives.
Next came Rome’s senators and
leaders. The victorious general
and his soldiers marched last. The
illustration at left shows a
triumphal march, but incorrectly,
with the general leading and
the prisoners, with heads bowed,
behind. When the general
reached the temple of Jupiter,
he offered his war treasures
to the gods. The prisoners were
then executed in front of the
cheering crowds.
A WIN DID NOT GUARANTEE A TRIUMPHNot every general who won a
war received a triumph. In fact,
ancient writers tell us that the city
celebrated triumphs only 320
times, which means that Rome
celebrated a triumph about once
every four years. Ancient writers
also tell us that the last true
Roman triumph, one with
sacrifices to Jupiter, the king of
the gods, happened in a.d. 303.
The most famous and the most
extravagant triumph was
celebrated by Trajan. In a.d. 105,
Trajan returned victorious from
his wars in Dacia (present-day
Romania) and hosted a triumph
that lasted 123 days! He also
held public games in the city, in
which 10,000 gladiators fought.
Historians believe his treasure
from Dacia included more than
350,000 pounds of gold and
700,000 pounds of silver!
TWO ‘MUSTS’ ON YOUR TRAVEL LISTIf you travel to Rome today,
look for a very large column
near the Roman Forum. It is the
Column of Trajan (see also pages
7–10). Standing almost 100 feet
high with nearly 2,500 figures
etched into its stone, the column
describes, through its carved
details, Trajan’s war against the
Dacians. When Trajan died in
a.d. 117, his ashes were placed in
a golden urn and buried beneath
the base of the column.
Trajan’s victory over the
Dacians was so decisive that the
Senate gave him a new title. After
a.d. 102, Trajan added the title
Dacicus Maximus (“Greatest Victor
over Dacia”) to his name. He also
commissioned a monument to
commemorate the final battle of
the Dacian Wars.
If you go to Romania, visit the
town of Adamclisi. There you will
see the remains of Trajan’s
Tropaeum Trajani—an enormous
altar dedicated to his victory and
to the Roman soldiers who died.
Anthony Hollingsworth is a professor of Classics at Roger Williams University and a frequent contributor to and avid reader of DIG magazine.
Here Comes the Parade! Spectacular events thrilled the citizens of Rome. And what
could be more spectacular than a parade stretching more than a mile and lasting several days! How about if it includes displays of gold, silver, treasures from distant lands, soldiers marching in full military uniform, and
trumpets blasting while the enemies of Rome march by in chains? Such parades are exactly how ancient writers describe the Roman triumph. If a Roman general had won a major battle in a war against a foreign enemy, if the victory had been decisive and clear, and if the general’s army had killed at least 5,000 soldiers, then the conquering general could ask the Roman Senate for permission to celebrate with a triumph. If the Senate agreed and if the army had enough plunder from the battle to pay for the parade, the request was granted.
The Via Sacra was the main street in ancient Rome.
4
The Road to
POWERby Angela Murock Hussein
When the Roman Empire was
established, it was widely
accepted that the role of
emperor would be a hereditary one, just as it
had been for kings in Rome’s legendary past.
Rarely, however, did a transfer of power
from an emperor to his heir occur peacefully.
5
Let’s Start with CaesarIn the first century b.c.,
the general and politician
Julius Caesar was an
extremely popular figure
among the Roman people. When
he was assassinated in 44 b.c., he was not
an emperor officially but he held almost absolute
power. In the months that followed his death,
civil war erupted between his supporters and
those who had opposed him and his policies. His
supporters won, and, in time, the Roman Senate
did declare Caesar a god, to be worshiped by the
people. But, there was the question of succession.
Caesar himself had no children; he had
adopted a relative as his son and heir. This man
was his great-nephew Octavius, who is known
to history as Augustus, the honorary title
awarded him by the Roman Senate. It is
Augustus whom records name as the first
emperor of Rome. His three immediate
successors were all related to him, granting his
family an exceptional place in Roman society.
In fact, after his death, Augustus and some of
those who followed him as emperor were
declared divine. Still, succession was never a
certainty.
What’s the Problem?Not one of Augustus’ immediate successors had a
son. So, grandsons, nephews, or stepsons were
adopted. Yet, in the centuries that followed,
many chosen successors died young—some under
mysterious circumstances. There were also
emperors who abused their power—executing
people for personal reasons, spending
money lavishly, and enacting
policies harmful to the
empire’s welfare. One
successor even had his pet
horse named a senator!
POWER
Augustus
Caesar
6
Finally, the family of the Caesars died out, and chaos
reigned. The army was split into factions, each
pledging allegiance to its own general.
In a.d. 69, four emperors rose to power. It was the
fourth, Vespasian, who finally was able to take
control and stabilize the empire. A respected general,
he also had two grown sons, which seemed to ensure
a smooth succession after his death. But such was not
to be. His oldest son, Titus, died after a reign of just
two years. His second son, Domitian,
was assassinated some 15 years
after he became emperor.
Looking Beyond RomeTo prevent civil war, the
Roman Senate decided
to choose the emperor,
and they moved to do so
before the military or the
imperial guard chose its
own. The Senate choice was
Nerva, an elderly senator with no
children. Since he was neither a strong
leader nor a popular public figure, it seems that the
senators wanted someone who would hold the
position only for a short time. Who specifically chose
Nerva is unclear. At the time, the most powerful
person in the empire was Trajan, a general in charge
of the armies along the German border.
Trajan had managed to keep this dangerous
frontier border secure. He was popular with the army
and recognized as a good leader. But, he was not in
Rome. So, if he had been named and if there was
opposition to his acceptance, he might have had to
return to Rome with troops to settle
any dispute. The Senate
certainly would not have
wanted this. Perhaps the
senators convinced Nerva
to adopt Trajan, or
Trajan may have
already been effectively
in charge and ordered
that his position be
made legal and
legitimate.
In any case, Nerva adopted
Trajan in the summer of a.d. 97,
while Trajan was still stationed along the Rhine
River. Nerva died the following January, but Trajan
did not return home immediately. Instead, he spent
some months traveling around and visiting the
military posts along the frontier. He knew he needed
the support of the troops, so that no one else could
use the troops against him.
A Change in AttitudeTrajan had not been born in Rome. Rather, he was
from the region of Baetica in Spain—the first emperor
to be born outside of Italy. This reflected a major
change in Roman politics, as the ancient Romans had
always been conservative in their views regarding
foreigners. Initially, the rights of Roman citizenship
were granted only to residents of Rome. In time, the
privilege was extended to those living throughout Italy.
Trajan’s ancestry did, in fact, trace its origins to
northern Italy. In addition, Spain had been under
Rome’s control for centuries. In 218 b.c., Rome
began its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which
today includes Spain and Portugal. Through the
years, Roman soldiers had been resettled in colonies
in Hispania, the Roman name for the peninsula,
and citizenship had been granted to wealthy
families living there. Thus, Trajan’s adoption
reflected a change in how Romans saw themselves
and their world. It was this change that made it
possible for a person who had not been born in
Rome, or even Italy, to be considered an
appropriate choice for the empire’s
highest office.
Angela Murock Hussein is an archaeological consultant and post-doctoral researcher at the University of Tubingen.
Nerva
Vespasian
Trajan
8
A MAGNIFICENT GIFTThis grand imperial complex consisted of a huge
open area surrounded by a colonnade. In the open
area opposite the entrance was a law court known as
the Basilica Ulpia, so-called in honor of Trajan’s
family name, Ulpius. Behind the basilica were two
libraries that faced each other across a small court. In
the middle of the court was a gigantic column (see
page 7) that was given to Trajan as a gift from the
Senate and the Roman people in honor of his
contributions to the empire. Completed in a.d. 114,
rajan achieved much during his reign, but
perhaps his greatest success was the conquest of Dacia, present-day Romania. With decades of military experience and
engineering expertise, the Romans were able to take control of this vast region that was rich in gold and fertile land. Dacia also provided a buffer zone between the lands controlled by Rome and those of hostile tribes to the north. Further, it was the spoils from this campaign that paid, in part, for his magnificent forum in Rome.
T»
CROSSING THE DANUBECarved near the base of the column, this relief shows the Roman army crossing the Danube River to enter Dacia. The Romans associated deities with their waterways, and here we see the god of the Danube, with his wet hair and beard, rising from the river to oversee the army’s maneuvers. The bridge across the river is a pontoon bridge that the Romans built by tying ships together. The reliefs are so detailed that we can clearly see the clothes, armor, equipment, and weapons worn and used by the soldiers. A closer look shows some soldiers carrying some of their belongings in small sacks affixed to poles. The row above moves along in time, showing the army constructing a fort. In addition to forts, Roman soldiers were often used to build roads, bridges, and the like that would help the army move about more easily and ensure that supplies would be protected.
9
the column stood across from the Temple to Trajan.
Trajan’s ashes were buried within the column’s
pedestal, and he was honored as a god in the temple
after his death.
The column still stands today. It measures 100
feet in height, and about 125 feet if you include its
pedestal. To make space for this area of Trajan’s
forum and the markets nearby, the ancients had
to level a hillside. Since the height of the column
equaled the height of the hill, visitors must have
marveled at the engineering skills the project had
involved. The column consists of 18 marble blocks
that had been stacked and then cut to be
consistent with each other. Inside is a spiral 185-
step staircase that ends at a platform near the
top. A bronze statue of Trajan once stood at the
top. In 1587, a statue of St. Peter was put in its
place. In later times, it was this statue that
protected the monument from being dismantled
as a pagan monument.
Forum, in this case, refers to a large public place in an ancient Roman city that was used as the center of business.
A basilica in ancient Rome was an oblong building with a semi-circular recess at one end. It served as a law court, as well as a place of public assembly.
In the Christian religion, St. Peter was one of the 12 Apostles, or followers, of Jesus Christ, the central figure of the Christian religion.
ADDRESSING THE ARMY Here we see Trajan addressing his troops. This event, known as an adlocutio, was one of the symbolic signs of his status as a general. The uniforms the soldiers are wearing differ depending on what their jobs were. The men in the front have pants, known as bracae. The Romans had, at first, considered bracae barbaric. In time, the Romans found them practical to use in colder climates, as they provided warmth for the legs. In the rear are the signiferi. These men carried the standards or signi—poles with the symbols of their regiments. The signiferi marched in front of the army and were distinguished by their bearskin hoods.
»
10
The reliefs wrapped around the outside surface
of the column in a spiral, with the first scene, the
one at the bottom, showing the arrival of the
army in the region. This design actually mimicked
ancient book design—a scroll that you unwound
as you read it. For a closer view of the upper
portions of the column, visitors went to the upper
stories of the adjacent libraries.
ROUND AND ROUND IT GOES!The outside of the column was carved in a
manner that visually retold the story of the
Dacian campaigns. Visitors could see in full
color—originally it was painted—how Trajan
had triumphed over the enemy. It was
spectacularly detailed and probably paralleled
a written account of the war that Trajan had
published. Trajan had led the campaigns
himself and was recognized as an outstanding
general. Incorporated into the scenes are
details that serve to illustrate traits key to the
effectiveness of any leader—showing mercy to
one’s enemies and administering justice wisely,
for example.
TREATING THE WOUNDEDMany men were wounded on the battlefield, and, just as in the military today, the Romans had medics to help the wounded. Here a man, perhaps a medic, is working on a soldier’s leg, possibly bandaging it or giving him stitches. Another scene shows two men helping a soldier to stand. In the relief just above are soldiers marching into battle behind the signiferi. At the bottom left sits a Dacian prisoner, who has been tied to keep him from escaping. His bare chest, long pants, and long hair identify him as a Dacian soldier.
»LAYING SIEGE The Roman military was very disciplined, and many of its best tactics relied on cooperation. Here we see the Roman army besieging a Dacian village. Behind the walls are Dacian fighters, recognizable by their oval shields. Each fighter has a raised fist and, in ancient times, each fist held a metal spear. To attack the walls, the Romans used a technique known as the “turtle.” A group of soldiers would form a rectangle. Some would hold their shields above their heads, while others put their shields to one side to form a “turtle shell.” This formation kept the soldiers within the “shell” relatively safe from anything the enemy could throw at them as they advanced toward the walls and gates and tried to break through both.
the end...
I was lost... you know. If you’ve
seen one imperial
statue, you’ve seen them all...if it wasn’t for
calliope’s inspiration, the
emperor’s statue would
have been boring....
romans have barely accepted the idea of
pants....
well, it certainly isn’t boring....
...how do you think they’ll react to something that won’t be
invented for another two thousand years!!!
then again... think of all thatfresh air and exercise
you’ll be getting.....
at last, it is done! my heroic statute of
emperor trajan will be the talk of rome!
rome will be talking all right, appolodorus... but I’m not sure you’re going to like it... Trajan
won’t like it!
you’re right! the emperor will make me a galley slave on the
imperial yacht!
I’m sure calliope will think of something....
woof!
Rome... in the sudio of apollodorus,
the imperial sculptor.....
weeeeeeee!
11
12
A Marvelous BridgeOne of Apollodorus’ greatest projects was a
bridge across the Danube River (see illustration
above, based on surviving descriptions) that
was constructed for Trajan before the Second
Dacian War. Dio Cassius marveled at it:
Trajan constructed over the Ister [Danube] a
stone bridge for which I cannot sufficiently
admire him. Brilliant, indeed, as are his other
achievements, yet this surpasses them. For it has
20 piers of squared stone, 150 feet in height
above the foundations and 60 in width, and
by Mark Rose illustrated by John Gordon Swogger
ne of the ancient world’s greatest engineers and architects was
Apollodorus of Damascus. He served in the military during the Dacian
Wars and is credited with designing Trajan’s Forum, the Basilica Ulpia,
the Market, and several other buildings in Rome. But details about
Apollodorus’ life are few. Much of what is known comes from two
ancient sources. The first is Roman History by the historian Dio Cassius, which was
written two centuries after Apollodorus. The second is the Historia Augusta, a collection
of biographies written by several authors. It dates to a later time period than Roman
History and is considered an unreliable source.
A Master at Engineering
13
these, standing at a distance of 170 feet from one
another, are connected by arches. How, then, could
one fail to be astonished at the expenditure made
upon them, or at the way in which each of them was
placed in a river so deep, in water so full of eddies,
and on a bottom so muddy?
A monumental arch stood at each end of the
bridge, which stretched nearly three-quarters of
a mile. The bridge appears on Trajan’s Column
(see pages 7–10), where it is behind the emperor,
who holds a patera, a shallow bowl used in
religious rituals. Apollodorus may be the figure
behind Trajan’s left shoulder.
Not the Easiest PersonalityWe may know something of Apollodorus’
character from a short text that has survived.
It is a reply to a request, almost certainly
from Trajan, for advice on siege equipment
suitable for rough terrain. The author, who is
believed to be Apollodorus, is deferential but
self-assured:
I have read your letter on military engineering,
lord, and am honored that you judge me worthy to
share your thinking on this matter. I have
accordingly made some sketches of siege machines…
ensuring that each will be effective, protective, and
safe, and that, as far as possible, all shall be made
of easily provided materials, light in weight, well-
engineered, and quick to produce with unskilled labor.
A Closer LookDio Cassius adds to the picture of Apollodorus
being self-assured, even to the point of being rude:
Once when Trajan was consulting him on some
point about the buildings, he said to Hadrian, who had
interrupted with some remark: “Be off, and draw your
pumpkins. You don’t understand any of these matters.”
Hadrian thought he was good at everything,
including architecture. But by using “pumpkins,”
Apollodorus ridicules Hadrian’s fondness for domes
on buildings. Worse, after Hadrian succeeded
Trajan as emperor, he sent Apollodorus plans that
he had drawn for a temple, to demonstrate his
talent. Rather than admiration, however, Hadrian
received a scathing critique from Apollodorus.
Supposedly, Hadrian was “vexed and exceedingly
grieved…and he restrained neither his anger nor
his grief, but slew the man.”
Clearly, both architect and emperor were
difficult to get along with, but it is hard to believe
Apollodorus met his end this way. We do not
know. It is more likely that he died from natural
causes in the early years of Hadrian’s rule.
Mark Rose earned his doctorate in the Program in Classical Archaeology at Indiana University.
by M
ark
Ros
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Work ZoneCautio
n, yes,
but I have
a speci
al invita
tion to
show you ju
st what
Trajan accomplis
hed.
So, let’s
go!
14
O ne of Trajan’s many
titles was Pater Patriae,
and it was accurate. He
was, literally, the “father of his
country.” But the title meant much
more than that. As a good general,
Trajan was responsible for the
soldiers who served under him. As
emperor, he was responsible for
everybody in the Roman Empire.
Building and infrastructure
projects, such as roads and
waterworks, were one way Trajan
kept everyone happy, supported
trade and security, and let people
know that he, their “father,” was
looking out for them.
Zone15
16
the funds to begin his greatest works at
home in Rome: the baths, the market, and,
above all, the forum that bear his name.
But building an empire took more than a
forum, however magnificent.
Restoration and Rebuilding
When Trajan took power, there was work to
be done. Some buildings in Rome had never
been fully repaired after the devastating fires
of a.d. 60 and a.d. 80. Trajan completed the
restoration of the Colosseum, the temples of
Jupiter Victor and Venus Genetrix, and the
Temple of Augustus, which replaced the library
built by Augustus, Rome’s first emperor. He also
rebuilt the Circus Maximus.
We know about some of Trajan’s projects
from written sources and more from depictions
on his coins. Trajan was not shy about
advertising his accomplishments. One of the
first he undertook in the city was a temple
honoring Nerva, his predecessor and adoptive
father. It was after Trajan seized the treasure
that belonged to the king of Dacia that he had
Can’t you just picture Trajan walking along this colonnade in his forum?
Rome’s civic center was the Basilica Ulpia in Trajan’s Forum.
which was one of Trajan. There were also
statues of Plotina, Trajan’s wife, and of Tiberius
Claudius Aristion and Julia, his wife. Aristion
and Julia were wealthy residents of Ephesus
who paid for the fountain house. Their gift did
benefit the general public, but it also gave
them an opportunity to flaunt their money and
link themselves to the imperial family.
Linking Roads and Bridges
Prosperity required an efficient transportation
system, and Trajan saw to it that the empire’s
was the best. Links from the city of Rome to the
sea were critical. At Ostia, Rome’s port city near
the mouth of the Tiber River, Trajan
built a large, hexagonal inner harbor
to protect ships from storms. He also
replaced part of the old main
highway, known as the Appian Way.
This upgrade improved the route
Ensuring the Water Supply
Water was a critical need for every city in the
empire. For Rome, Trajan ensured the supply
was adequate and reliable by commissioning
the aqueduct known as the Aqua Traiana. It was
dedicated on June 24, 109, just two days after
the Baths of Trajan were completed. Every day,
the Aqua Traiana carried 250,000 gallons of
fresh water to the city. The total flow of water
from all the aqueducts entering Rome was 2.18
million gallons a day. Recently, a subterranean
shrine at a spring was uncovered. It was there,
30 miles northwest of Rome, that the Aqua
Traiana began. This aqueduct, however, served
not just as a water supply. As the water
descended the steep slope of the Janiculum Hill
in Rome, it also powered a series of mills for
grinding flour.
In the city, people would fill their water jars
by placing them under running spouts or
dunking them in easily accessible pools at a
“fountain house.” Some fountain houses were
elaborately designed showplaces with statues of
famous people and deities. No fountain house
of the Aqua Traiana remains, but one at
Ephesus, in present-day Turkey, may be similar.
Based on Roman theater design, it had two
stories with niches for statues, the largest of
Trajan’s market still stands tall today.
The remains of the elaborate Trajanic fountain house at Ephesus in Turkey.
17
18
through the Apennine Hills to the port of
Brundisium on the Adriatic coast. To
commemorate this new highway, an arch was
erected at Beneventum, a key city on the
Appian Way. Its inscriptions and reliefs
promoted Trajan as the road’s builder and
showed him giving food to children in the
program known as Alimenta, which supported
Rome’s poor (see pages 20–21).
Kiosk on Philaeby Richard A. Lobban, Jr.
T he ancient marvels of dynastic Egypt mostly date from the fourth to the first millennium b.c. Many of these lie in ruins today, but, even so,
they still offer proof of the grandeur of former time periods. Certainly this is the case with regard to the temple at Kalabsha that honors the Nile god Khnum, the one at Dendera that honors the sky god Horus, and the one at Philae that honors Isis, the goddess of fertility.
There are other structures, however, much smaller in size, that merit notice, and many of these are often overlooked despite their free-standing beauty and significance. One is the kiosk at Philae (above), also known colloquially as “The Pharaoh’s Bed.” While it dates to Trajan’s time, the original base structure may be older. This airy, now roofless, temple was moved in the 1960s as part of the UNESCO salvage project to rescue ancient structures that otherwise would have been flooded as a result of the building of the Aswan Dam on the Nile. Today, the kiosk stands on nearby Agilkia Island, once known as Philae Island.
The kiosk has 14 columns: five each on the north and south, and four each on the east and west. The corner columns are actually counted twice, since each faces two directions. The length of the sides facing east and west is 65.6 feet. The length of the sides facing north and south is 49 feet. The height of the kiosk is almost 171 feet, which makes the structure resemble a cube. Ornate papyrus capitals support higher square columns. The latter supported the architraves, or beams, of the original wooden roof. The structure originally stood on a podium dock at the river’s edge. An annual festival procession on the Nile honored the goddess Isis, and, during it, researchers believe, her ship stopped at the kiosk. Carved reliefs show Trajan offering tribute to three major deities—Osiris, Isis, and Horus.
Richard A. Lobban, Jr., is professor emeritus of anthropology at Rhode Island College, adjunct professor of African Studies at the Naval War College, and a former resident of Carthage.
A statue of Trajan in a chariot originally was set atop the arch at Beneventum, Italy.
Trajan’s bridge at Alcantarain in Spain appears largely the same as it was in his time.
Philae is also the name given to a spacecraft that landed on a comet in 2014.
Nor did Trajan neglect the provinces. In
Spain, architect Gaius Julius Lacer built a
bridge across the Tagus River. Known today as
the Alcantara Bridge, it was made of granite
blocks. One of its six arches reaches 156 feet
above the river, making it the highest bridge in
the Roman Empire.
Ensuring SuccessCivil and military transportation needs
were often the same, so Rome’s legions were
involved in many of Trajan’s projects. When
preparing for the first war with the Dacians,
Trajan improved the road and canal alongside
the Danube River so he could move troops and
supplies quickly. Inscriptions along the route
praise the work and start with Trajan’s name
and titles: “The Emperor Caesar Trajan
Augustus” and “Pater Patriae.” How the
inscription ended varied. It might, for example,
read “had the road restored by cutting it into
the mountain rocks and making it larger with
wooden beams.” Or, it might read, “had the
navigation, dangerous because of the rapids,
made safe by having dug a new channel.” Of
course, these military projects were used long
after the Dacian wars.
Settling and Patrolling
Across the empire, Trajan established colonies
where retired Roman soldiers settled. One of the
best known was Timgad, founded for veterans
of the III Augusta legion. This colony’s location
was strategic, as it controlled passes through
the Aures Mountains in North Africa. In fact,
many colonies were situated at potential
trouble spots, areas where it helped to have a
defensible town and a strong pro-Roman
community. The basic layout at Timgad
mirrored a legionary camp: a gridwork of
streets within a square 1200-by-1200-foot
wall, with main north-south and east-west
roads. A central area was set aside for public
buildings, including a theater, a temple, and
a forum. Timgad’s formal name was
Colonia Timgad’s was Colonia Marciana Ulpia
Traiana Thamugadi, honoring Trajan’s father,
mother, and sister.
It may seem that Trajan was eager to
create opportunities to display his name and
promote himself. However, the energy and
administrative ability that made him a good
general also made him an effective ruler,
and his building and construction projects
reflect a strong sense of responsibility toward
his subjects.
Travel to Timgad in Algeria, and this scene will greet you.
19
A scene carved into Trajan’s Column depicts the emperor meeting with Dacian women. Dominating the composition are the figures of Trajan and the silhouette of a tall woman, thought to be the sister of Decebalus, king of the Dacians. Trajan’s attitude, with his right hand stretched toward the princess, seems friendly and engaging, but the woman’s lowered head appears to portray sadness.
This scene, carved in stone, seems to refer
to a specific time during the princess’s
captivity during the first Dacian War. The
Roman historian Dio Cassius mentioned
the incident in his work. There is, however, another
stone, standing upright high up in the Carpathian
Mountains with a carved scene that tells a different
story about the main characters in the scene on
Trajan’s column. Time and weather have eroded the
Carpathian stone, but it does resemble a tall woman
with her flock of sheep. The popular imagination sees
in it Decebalus’ sister or daughter.
According to legend…Trajan fell in love with the beautiful Dakia, but she,
seeing the Roman emperor as the enemy and the
invader, ran away disguised as a shepherdess. She
hid in the mountains, in the hope that her brother
would find and rescue her. Instead, it was the
emperor himself who discovered her hiding place.
As Trajan neared the spot, Dakia prayed to the
Dacian god Zamolxes to protect her from the love-
stricken Roman. The legend says that just when
Trajan stretched his arms toward Dakia—just like in
by Marina Debattista
Legend of Dakia
Emperor Trajan created one of the world’s
first government-aid programs. Known as
the Alimenta, it provided food and basic
education for poor urban children, both boys and
girls. Credit for designing the Alimenta, also called
the dole, goes to Trajan’s predecessor, the emperor
Nerva. But it was Trajan who initiated the program
after succeeding Nerva in a.d. 98. At first, the
by Emily Abbink
The Alimenta
Can you see Trajan passing out food to the people? This relief was carved into the Arch of Trajan in Beneventum, Italy.
20
Illustrated by Brad Walker
Legend of Dakia
Alimenta only included free grain. Later, the plan
was broadened to include oil, wine, and pork.
Coincidentally and interestingly to note, the
Chinese emperor Wang Mang instituted a similar
reform several decades earlier.
Donations, estate taxes, and interest on loans
paid for most of the Alimenta. However, the aid was
restricted to Italy and not offered to the rest of
Rome’s vast empire, which included southern
Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa. Most
likely this was because Romans considered it a form
of political privilege to be a true Italian, or member
of the Roman Empire’s heartland. The Alimenta may
also be seen as a measure to ensure that Italy’s
economy led that of the rest of the empire.
By improving living conditions for Rome’s poor,
along with free amusements, such as chariot races
and gladiator matches, the program also served to
help check social unrest in the empire’s capital. There
were many Romans, however, who disapproved of
the Alimenta. They believed that this “Bread and
Circuses” type of aid allowed rulers to gain votes
through food and fun, not excellent public service. In
addition, documents show that the assistance was
restricted to a very small percentage of needy
recipients, and was, at most, random imperial
charity. Nevertheless, the Alimenta continued and
became central to Rome’s enduring unity and power.
the image on his column—she turned into a stone.
Dakia’s tale circulated in different versions
throughout the Romanian mountains. In 1838, one
version caught the attention of a Romanian poet who
had visited the Carpathian Mountains in Romania. He
wrote a poem about the myth of Dakia and Trajan,
giving the legend a patriotic note. The emperor,
saddened by the loss of his beloved Dakia, places the
crown of the Roman Empire on the head of the humble
statue—an unlikely, but yet, a highly symbolic gesture.
The final verses of the poem suggest that Trajan’s
love for Dakia is eternal, as is her sorrow, since the
stone continues to weep and sigh. Her tears are the
rain, and her sighs are the thunder, so often heard
in the mountains. To lost shepherds, the stone
appears as a shining star, guiding and protecting
them from the elements.
21
Today…the exact location of the stone representing
Dakia and her flock is unknown, although a
sketch by the Romanian poet who incorporated
the legend into his work still survives.
Marina Debattista is the production editor with Taylor and Francis, a publisher of journals and books, in Abington, England.
22
As the gateway to East Asia, Parthia controlled
the Silk Road’s wealthy trade routes deep into
China and India. Eastern merchants exchanged
jade, laquerware, bronze, and valuable silks for
western horses, wool, glass, and tin. In Trajan’s
time, these goods traveled through the large and
powerful cities of Parthia. Control of this lucrative
trade was a desirable prize.
Centuries of TroubleThe “wars” between Rome and Parthia, from
53 b.c.–a.d. 217, mark a unique chapter in
classical history. Although Rome was able to
take control of nearly the entire civilized world
bordering the Mediterranean Sea, it never quite
defeated Parthia. Instead, the “wars” period
was one of alternating diplomacy, posturing,
and inconclusive battles between these two
powerful realms.
During his reign, the emperor Trajan embarked
on several successful campaigns to expand
Rome’s empire. By a.d. 113, he set his sights on
Parthia. Trajan justified this war, saying that the
Parthian king had replaced the Roman-appointed
king of Armenia without notifying Rome. Trajan
declared this a treaty violation and an act of war.
At the time, Armenia was an area claimed by
both Rome and Parthia.
To avoid violence, Parthia’s king dismissed his
newly chosen ruler and proposed to re-negotiate
Roman/Parthian imperial claims to Armenia.
Trajan ignored these peace offers and continued
his military advance on Parthia, formally making
Armenia a Roman province. Not only did Trajan
by Emily Abbink
POWERThe Limits of
The Parthian Empire was among the most enduring of the
Near Eastern ancient kingdoms. History records its dates as
247 b.c. to a.d. 228. Centered in today’s Iran, Parthia grew
during Roman times to include most of Mesopotamia. At its
height, the Parthian Empire stretched from what is now
central-eastern Turkey to eastern Iran. An eastern superpower, Parthia
counterbalanced Rome’s western dominance and played an important role
in Roman international relations.
Silk Road was a network of trade routes that linked the east with the west—more specifically, the lands of China with those of Rome.
23
want to expand his empire to control trade, he
likely wanted to make sure the eastern frontier
of his empire was more readily defensible. It is
also possible that the propaganda value of such
a conquest was irresistible. By conquering the
lands from the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea and
the Persian Gulf, Trajan would follow in the
footsteps of Alexander the Great.
A Path of ConquestAs Trajan marched east and south through
Mesopotamia, he easily overtook several
Parthian cities, including Babylon. From there,
he continued on to Ctesiphon, Parthia’s imperial
capital. Aware defeat was most likely imminent,
the Parthian king fled, and, indeed, the city
did fall quickly soon after. Trajan’s Parthian
campaign, however, was not a glorious
conquest, as Parthia’s troops had barely
fought back. Disappointed, Trajan could
scarcely compare these easy victories to the
dazzling successes Alexander the Great had
experienced centuries earlier.
With Parthia now under his control,
Trajan appointed a new ruler (left), but
he was a puppet ruler, subject to the orders
of Trajan. As a result, Trajan’s ambitious
plans began to fall apart. While he was still
in southern Mesopotamia, he learned that
the newly secured lands had revolted. He
sent troops to recapture the area, but
rebellions broke out across Parthia. Short of
supplies, Trajan opted to withdraw from the
south in order to hold his gains in the
north. Trajan’s plan was to re-take the
southern cities but he fell ill and returned
home. He died in a.d. 117.
Short-Lived Victory!Trajan’s campaign represented the peak of Rome’s
expansion. Yet his inability to control Parthia
marked the manageable limits of Roman
imperialism. At the same time, the quick defeat of
Parthia’s capital and the numerous revolts reflect
the problems within the Parthian empire.
Concerned that Rome could not control these
eastern regions, Trajan’s successor, Hadrian,
pulled Trajan’s troops back to the Euphrates River,
the former border between Rome and Parthia.
Emily Abbink is a retired University of California, Santa Cruz, Lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing.
Laquerware refers to decorative work made of wood and covered with lacquer (varnish). It is often inlaid with ivory or precious metals.
With his arm stretched toward Partamaspartes, Trajan names him the new ruler of Parthia.
FUN WITH WORDS
24
WORD ORIGINSColumn Here’s an English word with a very simple history. It’s taken almost directly from its Latin root: columna, meaning “pillar.” Digging a bit deeper, we find that columna is closely related to the Latin columen, which translates as “top” or “summit.”
Empire Here’s another English word with a simple history. It derives from the Latin noun imperium (“rule, command, authority”), which, in turn, derives from the Latin verb imperare (“to command”). “What exactly is an empire?” you may ask. It is a major political unit that has a huge territory or a number of territories or peoples under one all-powerful authority.
Veto This English noun that, by definition, is the official power or right to refuse to accept or allow something, is actually a Latin verb. The Latin veto translates into English as “I forbid.”
WORD STORIESTriumvirate Show the term “triumvirate” to ancient Romans, and they might look a bit puzzled at first. They might think it was a misspelling of their Latin word triumviri. And they would be almost right. “Triumvirate” is
the English adaptation of triumviri, a term that any Roman who lived after 60 b.c. knew well. It was in that year that the powerful Roman statesmen Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first Triumviri, an unofficial group of three who divide the power among themselves. The term is a combination of two Latin words: trium (from tres, meaning “three”) and viri (“men”). Other such political groups are “duumvirate” (from duo, meaning “two) and “quadrumvirate” (from quattuor, meaning “four”). In American history, John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay are known as the “Great
Artist Tom Lopes has incorporated several of the words/expressions highlighted here into his illustration. We have labeled one. Can you find others? See page 41 for the answers.
post scriptum
25
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Triumvirate.” The three were politically powerful and influential until their deaths in the early 1850s.
EXPRESSIONSP.S. While P.S. might not officially register as an expression, the letters are most often found at the end of a letter. Sometimes, a person will use it in conversation as well. Whatever the case, the letters represent two Latin words: post and scriptum. Translated literally, they mean “after what has been written.” So, a P.S. in a letter is a thought that a person did not include and then decides to add at the end. If the letter-writer chooses
to add a second P.S., it would be P.P.S. (post
post scriptum). Actually, you can add as many as you wish, continuing to add a “P.” each time.
Resting on laurels Ever heard this expression? Writers and critics often use it to refer to people who have become complacent or lazy, preferring not to expend any more effort but letting past achievements define their careers and what people think of them. For the origin of the phrase, we need to look to ancient Greece and Rome, where a wreath fashioned of laurel leaves was a highly sought-after prize at athletic and literary contests. Statues of Roman emperors often depict them crowned with a laurel wreath.
Latin Phrase English Translation Meaning
E pluribus unum Out of many, one Phrase found on Great Seal of the United States and also on the reverse of some coinage
Ex officio Because of one’s position Denotes a person’s right to membership because of the power or influence of that person’s position, not by election or appointment
Interregnum Between reigns Refers to time between rulers, as well as to a period during which the normal functions of government or control are suspended
Vox populi Voice of the people Refers to the opinions or beliefs of the majority of the people
LATIN PHRASES USED IN ENGLISHIn previous Fun with Words columns, we have introduced several Latin
phrases that continue to be used in English. Here are a few more:
Why not see how many
of these you “meet” when
doing your homework,
listening to news reports,
or even reading that book
you are enjoying!
26
by Anthony Hollingsworth
What The
Letters Reveal
Marcus Ulpius Trajan was Rome’s 13th emperor. He ruled the Roman Empire almost 2,000 years ago. That was before anyone knew about North and South America, before there was a printing press or electricity, before
English or Spanish was spoken, before knights, castles, or even churches existed. Ancient Rome was a very different place than it is today. Yet, we know more about everyday life when Trajan was emperor than we do about life after the fall of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages. Why is this so?
LET’S TAKE A LOOKMost of what we know about Trajan’s time period
can be traced to two major sources. First, the
Romans commonly wrote letters to each other.
Today, we write text messages and emails describing
where we are, what we are doing, and what is
happening around us. In Trajan’s world, the
Romans described their daily routines on papyrus
scrolls and sent them to others by messenger. The
messengers carrying these letters crisscrossed the
empire on the roads that the Romans were so
famous at building. Along these roads were letter
stations—ancient post offices called cursus publicus.
At each, horses and delivery boys were waiting to
carry letters quickly to the next station (opposite).
On average, a letter would travel about 50 miles per
day. Letter writing was so common and the letters
were so easily delivered that Romans would
sometimes write home every day.
But there is a second reason why we know so
much about life in Trajan’s time. We have the
letters written by one of his loyal subjects—Gaius
Plinius Caecilius Secundus. Today, we call him
Pliny or Pliny the Younger, because his uncle—
another famous Roman author—is known as
Pliny the Elder. Unlike many Romans, Pliny the
Younger made copies of his letters and published
them. Had Pliny just sent his letters without saving
them, as other Romans did, those letters would
have been lost over the centuries. It can be said
that Pliny was the eyes and ears for the emperor,
as he regularly sent letters to Rome, reporting on
everything that he thought, did, and saw.
WORKING HIS WAY UP THE LADDERPliny started his career the same way most
aristocrats at the time did. He studied law and
speech in school, served in the Roman army, and
became a Roman senator. His attention to detail
did not go unnoticed. He was appointed treasurer
of the army’s retirement funds and then manager,
or Prefect, of the entire Roman treasury. In the
United States, his position was comparable to that
of the Secretary of the Treasury.
Pliny was so successful in his jobs that the
emperor Trajan named him a curator for special
assignments. Curators were special advisors to the
emperor, people whom the emperors trusted most.
Pliny’s first job as curator was to oversee the
condition of the Tiber River. This position was
known as the curator alvei tiberis (“caretaker of the
banks of the Tiber”). To us, it seems like an odd job
and certainly one that does not hold a particularly
important rank. However, for the Romans, it was a
key assignment. All ships bringing corn, supplies,
and information from areas throughout the
Roman Empire had to sail along the Tiber River to
reach Rome. If the river was flooding, blocked by
trees, under attack, or in any way impassable,
everyone in Rome would suffer, including the
emperor. Among the principal duties of every ruler
was keeping the people of Rome happy and
28
Wonder how closely this ancient bust of Trajan resembled the emperor? Actually, it was probably quite accurate!
receiving information from the lands under his
control. Trajan needed the person watching the
river to be someone he could trust.
SENT EASTWARDPliny proved himself a very competent curator. In
a.d. 110, Pliny received his most important
assignment ever. He was to serve as Trajan’s eyes
and ears in the eastern section of the Roman
Empire, specifically as a Legatus Augusti (“Imperial
Ambassador”). He was stationed in the province
of Bithynia, that part of present-day Turkey
(ancient Asia Minor) that runs to the north along
the Black Sea. In Pliny’s time, this province was
very prosperous, but difficult to control. Trajan
well understood that he needed to know what
was happening there and how to best retain
control. Until his untimely death sometime around
a.d. 113, Pliny followed Trajan’s orders and sent
letters home reporting everything that happened.
For Pliny, no event was too small to go unnoticed.
In his letters, he described how merchants conducted
their business, which town leaders spoke at
meetings, and what the people thought about
sports, education, and the emperor. He even described
how the houses were built and heated.
A FIRST-EVER DOCUMENTOften Pliny wrote about key events in the area. For
the modern world, there is one letter, which is one of
the most important letters ever written. One day,
while listening to court cases, Pliny had to pass
judgment on a group of people who called themselves
Christians. For those who refused to worship the
emperor, he ordered execution. But for those who
were children or Roman citizens or seemed repentant
for having turned away from the Roman religion, he
was unsure and sought the emperor’s advice. Trajan
wrote back, saying that Pliny should be forgiving and
not hunt down those professing to be Christians.
Trajan also recommended that Pliny only bring
Christians to court if absolutely necessary. These
letters are the first non-religious documents we have
about Christianity.
So it is that, because Pliny the Younger recognized
the importance of preserving his letters, the modern
world is indebted to him and his gift of observing
daily life.
29
Here’s an 1885 illustration of a cursus publicus, along with all the hustle and bustle at a post office!
31
or a woman like her (though where is
one like her)?”
Both Plotina and Marciana at first
refused the honorary title augusta
(meaning “holy” or “majestic”). They
both did accept it eventually. After
112, Plotina and Marciana were also
depicted on coins. Plotina’s coins
usually featured Fides, the goddess of
good faith, or Vesta, the goddess of the
hearth, on the reverse side.
Images on the coins and surviving
sculptures show Plotina wearing an
elaborate, unique hairstyle that gives
an impression of order and control
(the ancient bust opposite is believed
to represent Plotina). Pliny remarked
that her looks reflected her good
character, saying, “how restrained she
is in her dress, how moderate in her
attendants, how proper in her
manner of walking!”
HER ROLE IN THE SUCCESSIONPlotina and Trajan had no children.
Therefore, to avoid political turmoil, it
was necessary for Trajan to adopt
someone as his successor. According
to at least one source, Trajan
approved a marriage between his
great-niece, Vibia Sabina, and
Hadrian, because Plotina persuaded
him to do so. Hadrian’s parents had
died when he was 10, and he had
What is Epicurean Philosophy?
A round 300 b.c., a Greek named Epicurus founded a school of philosophy in Athens. He taught that the world consists of atoms and empty space, that the gods do not interfere in human lives, and that there is no life
after death. He also believed that people should pursue pleasure, but would be happiest by being satisfied with little. In fact, a human’s greatest pleasure would be to achieve a state of ataraxia, freedom from desire or passion.
become the ward of his cousin
Trajan. Yet, even though the
marriage strengthened Hadrian’s
bid to become the next emperor,
Trajan made no move to adopt
him formally.
In 113, Trajan went East on a
campaign. Traveling with him
were Plotina and Hadrian. Trajan
was about 60 at the time, and,
sometime in late 116 or early 117,
he had a stroke. He then decided
to return to Rome and left
Hadrian behind as governor of
Syria. Trajan never did reach
Rome. His health deteriorated,
and he died in Selinus, in modern-
day Turkey. Just a few days before
his death, a document was sent to
the Senate that formally adopted
Hadrian. The document, however,
was signed by Plotina, not Trajan.
THE TRUTH?Had Trajan really adopted
Hadrian? What role did Plotina
play in selecting Hadrian as
successor? Rumors swirled
throughout Rome. Even today,
scholars debate what really
happened.
What does seem certain is that
Hadrian and Plotina remained
close until her death around
122/123. Hadrian honored her
memory by erecting a temple and
proclaiming her a goddess. “She
asked much of me,” he said at her
funeral, “but was refused nothing.”
Liz Johnson is a freelance writer who holds a master’s degree in classics from Tufts University.
T rajan married Pompeia
Plotina before he
became emperor. She
probably came from a
high-ranking family of the equestrian
or senatorial class. Her hometown
may have been Nemausus, present-
day Nimes in France. Ancient sources
offer just enough evidence about her
life to indicate that she was a
remarkable empress. Unfortunately,
they are not detailed enough for us to
know what she was really like.
Plotina was honored as an ideal
Roman woman: modest, virtuous,
and dutiful. Her interest in Epicurean
philosophy (see sidebar) implies that
she was intellectual. Further, she had
some political power and may have
played a role in Hadrian succeeding
Trajan as emperor.
SINGING HER PRAISES Pliny the Younger, a Roman writer
and public official (see also pages
26–29), praised Trajan during his
reign in a speech called Panegyricus.
In the speech, which still exists, Pliny
admired Plotina and gives Trajan the
credit for her good qualities. Pliny
also notes how well Plotina gets along
with Trajan’s sister, Marciana, who
lived in the palace with them. “If the
high priest had to choose a wife,” he
wrote, “wouldn’t he have chosen her
32
For almost 2,000 years, historians have
praised Trajan as an exceptional
emperor. Most note that he excelled in
imperial management, military
courage and leadership, and public generosity.
According to Pliny…One well-known, early tribute came from his
contemporary Pliny the Younger, who served as a
consul and then governor of Bithynia, an eastern
province. (See also pages 26–29.) Pliny knew
firsthand how caring and dedicated the emperor
was. His formal praise is found in a speech titled
Panegyricus (see also page 31). In it, Pliny
expressed his admiration for Trajan’s
extraordinary personal qualities such as
moderation, unpretentiousness, and
humanitarian treatment of his subjects. Trajan,
Pliny said, deeply desired that his people perceive
him not as a tyrant but as a compassionate
princeps (“leader, chief”), who was equal with his
fellow citizens, protecting them like a father.
According to the Coins…Trajan’s concern for his people is highlighted on the
emperor’s coins (one above and three opposite),
many of which survive today. Some coins, for
instance, publicize Trajan’s providing free grain for
Rome’s needy. Some illustrate his alimenta program
for poor children in Italy, showing the emperor
reaching out to two small recipients (see pages
20–21). Other coins commemorate a major new
highway through Italy, the Via Traiana; an aqueduct
that significantly increased Rome’s fresh water
Princeps Optimus
by Chaddie Kruger
Look!
It’s the back of a coin
minted under Trajan.
The letters S C stand for
senatus consulto (by
decree of the senate).
And optimo principi
translates as “for the
best leader.” For SPQR,
check out this issue’s
back cover.
‘BEST LEADER’
33
supply, the Aqua Traiana; a new forum; and the
restoration of the Circus Maximus,
the famed chariot-racing
stadium in Rome. Still
others depict Dacian
captives and Trajan’s
column, celebrating
Trajan’s empire-
stretching conquest of
Dacia. Some praise the
emperor by using the title
Dacicus, for his Dacian
victory, or Parthicus, for his
eastern triumphs.
The coins validate Pliny’s
emphasis that Trajan enhanced
and took wonderful care of the
empire. Imprinted on many are honorary titles,
such as pius (“dutiful”) and felix (“fortunate,”
“blessed by the gods”). Perhaps Trajan’s favorite
inscriptions were the ones that proclaimed him
princeps optimus (“best leading citizen”) and pater
patriae (“father of the country”).
According to Eutropius…Two hundred years after Pliny, another Roman
official, Eutropius, hailed Trajan as the best of
all the emperors before his time! This fourth-
century historian singled out Trajan’s excellent
judgment and noteworthy concern for the
people. “At Rome and throughout the
provinces,” he says, Trajan conducted himself
“as an equal to all.” Eutropius adds that Trajan
wanted to be the type of emperor to his subjects
that Trajan, as a subject, would have wanted
his emperor to be to him. Eutropius also
recorded that it was a tradition for Roman
senators to congratulate new emperors by
shouting the Latin phrase felicior Augusto, melior
Traiano. So it was that the senators hoped the
incoming ruler would be “more divinely favored
than Augustus and better than Trajan.”
According to Gibbon…Fourteen hundred years later, the renowned
English historian Edward Gibbon (1737–1794)
named Trajan and four others as the finest of all
the Roman emperors. According to Gibbon, the
time period from a.d. 98 to 180 was the high
point of Roman prosperity, virtuous rule, and
contentment. The “five good emperors” who
presided over this enlightened Golden Age were
Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and
Marcus Aurelius.
Chaddie Kruger taught AP Vergil in addition to other upper levels of Latin, classical history and mythology for more than 30 years.
Here, Trajan distributes food.
Depicted here is the Port of Trajan.
Here, Trajan wears a laurel wreath.
34
One day, around a.d. 600, as Pope Gregory walked
about Rome, he thought about Trajan’s good
deeds. He knew that, centuries earlier, the
historian Dio Cassius had praised Trajan’s rule
and that the Roman people called him Optimus
Princeps (“Best Leader”). Gregory, however, was thinking about the
emperor’s treatment of Christians. Other Roman emperors had
persecuted those who followed the Christian faith, but when a
Roman provincial governor named Pliny had asked Trajan for
guidance in treating Christians, Trajan had replied that they were
to be left alone (see also page 29).
Gregory’s RegretGregory recalled, too, that, as
Trajan was leaving Rome for
battle, a woman had approached
him, weeping and begging that he
avenge her murdered son.
Anxious to depart, Trajan replied
he would do so when he returned
from the war. When the woman
persisted in her entreaties, Trajan
took pity on her, got off his horse,
and saw that justice was done—
while the Roman army waited (see
above for French artist Noel
Halle’s 1765 interpretation of the
scene). Gregory felt a sense of
regret that, despite Trajan’s
by Mark Rose
The Virtuous Pagan
Pope is the title given to the head of the Roman Catholic Church.
FAST FORWARD
35
essential goodness, his soul could
never reach heaven because
Trajan believed in the ancient
Roman religion, not Christianity.
Gregory later reported that, at
that moment, he suddenly heard
a celestial voice saying, “I have
now heard your prayer and have
spared Trajan.”
Praise for the PaganThis story, called the “Golden
Legend,” did not end there. The
Catholic philosopher Thomas
Aquinas (1225–1274), like many
others, believed what the voice
had said was true. He thought
that Trajan, brought back to life
through Gregory’s prayers, had
accepted Christianity. Trajan then
died—a second time—after which
his soul ascended heavenward.
Trajan quickly grew into his new,
Christian role. In the poem
“Paradise,” the early
14th-century Italian poet Dante
Alighieri placed the emperor’s
“glorious soul” in heaven. Just
decades later, the English poem
“Piers Plowman” has Trajan
piously proclaim that “True love
extends to enemies, and
especially to the poor. Rich and
poor are brethren in Christ.”
Test Your Memory!
1. The Roman emperor Trajan was married to
.
2. is credited with designing
Trajan’s forum.
3. If a general decisively defeated a foreign enemy
and killed at least 5,000 soldiers, he could ask
the Roman Senate to celebrate a .
4. was the sister of Decebalus, and
legend says Trajan fell in love with her.
5. History credits as the first emperor
of the Roman world.
6. was a program that provided food
and basic education for poor urban children.
7. The Alcantara Bridge, the highest bridge in the
Roman Empire, was built across the
River in Spain.
8. On the march, the marched in
front of the army, wearing bearskin hoods.
9. The Parthian Empire included much of the area the
ancient Greeks and Romans called .
10. The letters of _________ offer a window into the
world of Trajan and his empire.
How many of the blanks below can you fill in without looking back to the articles on pages 2–35?
FUN & GAMES
Ans
wer
s ar
e on
pag
e 41
.
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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601
Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com
36
L ike a magic carpet ride to another time and place, the
short boat trip to the island of Ada Kaleh in the Danube
River left 20th-century Europe behind. Here, between
Romania and Serbia, on a strip of land only a mile long,
were narrow crooked alleys and an exotic bazaar where
Turkish was spoken and rugs, perfume, and strong coffee were sold.
Ada Kaleh had once been part of Trajan’s empire, where the
Danube formed the southern border of Roman Dacia. The site
of Trajan’s famed bridge to Dacia (see pages 12–13) is nearby.
Centuries later, another empire, that of the Ottoman Turks, began
expanding into this region. At the time, the Habsburg monarchs
of Austria ruled the area. In the late 17th century, Austrian forces
built a fort on the island as a defense against the Turks. For the
next hundred years, in a series of Austro-Turkish wars, the tiny
island and its fortress would be captured by one side and then
retaken by the other, only to be reconquered and lost again. In
1791, a treaty ended these wars, and Ada Kaleh was returned
officially to the Ottoman Turks.
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire receded. In 1878, in
the Treaty of Berlin, the Ottomans lost their territory on both sides
of the Danube. Interestingly, the treaty did not mention Ada
Kaleh, so the island remained
an Ottoman possession.
Following the end of the
Ottoman monarchy in 1923,
the island joined Romania. Ada
Kaleh, however, retained its
Turkish identity in contrast to its
European neighbors.
Still, this small paradise (the
view above dates to about 1900)
that so fascinated tourists was
doomed. A hydroelectric dam
that was being built downriver
was about to raise the water level
and flood Ada Kaleh. By 1968,
the islanders had moved away.
In 1971, when the dam was
completed, the island disappeared
beneath the Danube forever.
Sarah Novak is a writer who specializes in historical byways and curiosities.
by Sarah Novak
Caption
A Lost Island
INTEREST-
INGLY
See
page
__
for
the
answ
er.
See
page
__
for
the
answ
er.
TRAJAN’S VAST empire included Britannia, most of today’s Great Britain. An important Roman settlement there was Eboracum. Established in a.d. 71 as a military fortress and surrounded by a protective wall, Eboracum was home to thousands of Roman legionaries up to the late fourth century. After the Romans left, the city continued—and continues—as a major center for the region. It is now the English city of York. A special 1971 postage stamp celebrated the city’s founding by the Romans 1,900 years earlier. The stamp depicts a centurion, a Roman army officer, on horseback and holding a standard. This long pole with a flag or design at the top, such as the eagle shown here, identified a unit of Roman soldiers. Behind him is a section of York’s old city walls.
Look closely at this depiction of Eboracum and its Roman centurion. What’s wrong here? Several details are not accurate. What are they? See the answers on page 41.
37
WHAT’S WRONG HERE?
37
Have a question about world history, archaeology, paleontology? Dr. Dig and Calliope are ready to answer your questions.
ASK AWAY!
Q Did the invention of gunpowder end the age of
European castles?—Robin, Web post
A YOUR QUESTION, Robin, is actually quite complicated. A castle—a word
that derives from the Latin castellum, which translates as “little fortified place”—was a fortified structure that nobles and rulers built for defense. These buildings acted as residences for the nobles, centers of administration, and places where people could find shelter in time of attack. Castles had thick walls, as well as defenses such as moats (deep, wide ditches) and towers for launching projectiles. These construction elements gave those inside the castles the advantage in warfare, since an enemy could either breach the walls, which was difficult, or lay siege, starving those inside. However, a siege could work against an enemy. Even
after gunpowder was introduced into Europe, it took a long time before
cannon that could take down castle walls were invented. Once
these cannon became widespread, castles became less practical as cannon balls could easily pierce the walls. As a result, the practice of
castle-building to stop an enemy gradually declined.
Q Was there actually a labyrinth in the Minoan
palace of Knossos?—Jane, Web post
A TODAY, THE term “labyrinth” refers to a kind of maze, a meaning that traces
its origin to an ancient Greek myth about a maze that was built at Knossos, on the Mediterranean island of Crete. This maze supposedly housed a creature known as the Minotaur, a man-eating monster with the body of a man and the head of a bull. But the word “labyrinth” and its association with Knossos are both much older than the arrival of the Greeks to Crete. According to one translation, the word “labyrinth” meant “place of the double axe” and identified the “place” as the palace at Knossos. In Minoan art, the double axe was an important religious symbol. By the time the Greeks arrived in Crete, the palace of Knossos was in
38
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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601
Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com
ruins. It is thought that the complicated plan of rooms and passageways probably impressed the Greeks and inspired the myth.
—Dr. Dig
Q Did the ancient Hawaiians know how to surf? When
was surfing invented?—Mike, Web post
A THE ANCIENT Hawaiians did indeed surf. To them surfing was more than a
recreational activity. It had a deep religious significance as well. Native Hawaiians and the people of other Pacific islands were surfing long before the arrival of Europeans in the region in the 1700s. While the origin of modern surfing can be traced to Hawaiian culture, Hawaii was not inhabited until sometime between a.d. 300–1000. The
earliest evidence of surfing is found along the north coast of Peru in South America, where pottery models show that fishermen were already surfing on boards made from bound reeds, known as caballitos de totora (Spanish for “little reed horses”) around 3,000 years ago.
—Calliope
Q Is it true that people in South America domesticated
guinea pigs for food?—Pete, Web post
A GUINEA PIGS were indeed first domesticated as a food source. The
species is native to the Andes Mountains in South America, where they were, and still are, kept, much as many people keep chickens around their yards. As with many domesticated animals in farming communities, guinea pigs were household pets as well as food. European explorers brought guinea pigs and many other New World species back to their homelands. Several of these—corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and turkey, for example—were incorporated into European cuisines. Europeans, however, do not seem to have developed a taste for guinea pig meat.
39
THIS & THAT
40
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CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601
Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com
German NavyI recently read “U-Who?” in the May/June 2014 issue of “Onsite Underwater.” After reading the article, I did some further research and want to share the information.
My cousin who is a diver gave me a reason why the German Navy has a label on the box found on the U-869. He said it’s because when the subs are in the docks, they were concerned about swapping the spare parts in the boxes. Also, he said that divers found the box in the motor room. Are there any other unidentified shipwrecks from World War II?
I loved your article because I love diving and I’m interested in World War II. I liked how you made the article a mystery. Thank you.
Sincerely,Sam S.Hanover, New Hampshire
Glad you enjoyed the issue, Sam! Yes, the box
was found in what was called the engine room. As to other shipwrecks, if you search “shipwrecks World War II,” several sites will pop up that can answer your question.
JokeQ: Why did the Romans build straight roads?A: So their soldiers would not go around the bend.
Anna D.—Fairfield Woods
Middle SchoolFairfield, Connecticut
Love your artwork,
Anna!
[ BOOK ]
OFF THE SHELF
Answers
[ BOOK ] [ BOOK ]
Cricket ResourcesRoman Africa (DIG1601)
Welcome to the Colosseum (DIG1302)
FUN WITH WORDS, page 24:
Test Your Memory, pg. 35: 1. Plotina; 2. Apollodorus. 3. triumph, 4. Dakia, 5. Augustus, 6. Alimenta, 7. Tagus, 8. signiferi, 9. Mesopotamia, 10. Pliny.
What’s Wrong Here?, pg 37: A centurion would not carry a standard, but rather a much shorter staff that showed his rank. This rod, or vitis (Latin for “vine”), was about three feet long and made from the wood of a substantial grapevine branch. The centurion used it to direct his troops while training or in battle. The standard (signum in Latin) was carried by a Roman foot soldier called a signifer (Latin for “standard-bearer”). Each group of soldiers under a centurion had its own signum, with military emblems that identified and honored the unit. The signifer marched in the front ranks in battle so the signum could be seen. He wore the skin of an animal, such as a lion, over his armor, with the animal’s fearsome head on top of his helmet. The section of York’s wall illustrated on the stamp does not appear as it would have in the year a.d. 71. Also, the lower section of this part of the wall does date to Roman times but was built after the city’s founding. The upper section dates from the Middle Ages.
ON THE
NET Here’s a chock-full site from PBS that focuses
on Rome’s emperors, including Trajan, plus links
to other related topics:
www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/nerva_
trajan.html
Here’s a wonderful interactive video and also
text with great illustrations that will take you
circling around Trajan’s Column—enjoy!:
www.nationalgeographic.com/trajan-column/
index.html
Click on this site from New York’s
Metropolitan Museum of Art for a fascinating
look at Rome’s empire and emperors—and it
is a look, as well as a read—if you click on the
underlined words/phrases, you are taken to a
close-up of the related MET artifacts:
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roem/hd_roem.htm
Pepin Goes to Rome by John Doherty (Strategic Book, 2015, http://sbpra.com/JohnDoherty) is a fast-paced, interesting read about a Roman teenager in search of his father who has been taken prisoner by the Romans. Helping him is a girl versed in holistic healing—all taking place in the time of Emperor Tiberius (first century a.d.).
Eagle in Exile by Alan Smale (Random, 2015, randomhousebooks.com), offers a fascinating combination of ancient Roman history and early American history. Imagine that Rome did not fall to invading tribes, but survived into the 13th century a.d. Imagine also that a Roman contingent has braved the Atlantic waters in Viking-type vessels and encountered Native Americans. Thus begins the story.
veto
column
laurels
vox populi
triumvirate
ex officio
House of CaesarDynasty by Tom Holland (Doubleday/2015/www.penguinrandomhouse.com) has as its subtitle, “The Rise and Fall of the House of Caesar.” A well-researched, in-depth study of this period in Roman history, it includes the well-known, as well as the not-so-well-known, facts and events of the time period. For anyone wishing to know the truth about Julius Caesar and his successors, this one is for you!
41
This issue’s EAGLE EYES are on pages: 5, 18, 31, and back cover.
4242
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43
While Mom is talking with a couple of potters, she keeps her son busy with a little clay pig.
To be a part of this scene, you would have to travel back in time more than 4,000 years to the land of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). See the rectangular structure in the background? It’s what we call a ziggurat, a stepped tower
that was often crowned with a temple.
Rattle Finds at Ur
Was this clay pig fashioned to be a rattle? Turn to pages 48 and 49 to find out.
Archaeologists have uncovered a great variety of clay objects, including one in the shape of a pig, that date back to the time when high-ranking individuals were being buried in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. Research shows that pigs definitely were domesticated by then—so the potters above might easily have fashioned a variety of clay objects in that shape.
43
LET’S GO –GING
CHECK OUT MEET A LITTLE BULL PG 57!
44
Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, also known as the
Penn Museum. Housed there are
roughly one million objects that
were excavated largely by
scholars associated with the
museum. With its
laboratories,
instruments, and
team of experts, CAAM’s mission
is to train college students in a
range of scientific methods
crucial to archaeological
discovery. High school students
are also involved in the life of the
Center through afterschool
internships and summer courses
in archaeological science.
Archaeologyby Marie-Claude Boileau, Tessa de Alarcon, Moritz Jansen, Megan Kassabaum, Janet Monge, Katherine Moore, and Chantel White
When we think about
archaeology, we
usually think about
excavation, but, in reality, most
archaeological work takes place in
the laboratory! Archaeologists
spend countless hours examining
and studying uncovered remains
(see photo at right), even when
the actual excavations took place
years, even decades, earlier. Why?
Archaeological remains have
much to tell about ancient people.
A close look at these remains
can offer clues as to who the
people involved were, what they
ate, what their environment was
like, and what kinds of tools they
made. The goal at the Center for
the Analysis of Archaeological
Materials (CAAM) is to answer
these important questions. To do
this, CAAM experts work with
students in a variety of ways—
through coursework, research,
and projects.
CAAM is located in
the University of
Pennsylvania
For more information about
CAAM, please click on: www.penn.museum/caam
in the Lab
44
LET’S GO –GING
45
Behind the Scenes
One Axe—Many AnswersIn the 1920s, British archaeologist
Sir Leonard Woolley led an
archaeological expedition at Ur
that had been organized jointly
by the British Museum and the
Penn Museum. Located along the
Euphrates River, in what is
present-day southern Iraq, Ur
had once been a very important
city. Occupied from around 5500
to 400 b.c., it is best known for its
amazing third-millennium b.c.
Royal Cemetery. Although
excavations ended decades ago,
the research on the finds
continues.
Among the artifacts uncovered
was an axe (see page 46).
Originally, it had had a wooden
handle, but, over time, its metal
axehead began to corrode. This
metal corrosion gradually spread
over the entire artifact. Even the
axe’s wooden handle came to be
covered with metal corrosion.
While the wood did not survive,
we can still see its traces, called
pseudomorphs. This corrosion
did have one positive effect—it
filled in the plant cells and
actually preserved their
structures. CAAM’s researchers
used a high-powered microscope
to look more closely at the cells,
and their findings suggest that
the axe handle was made from
Syrian ash. Ash is a species of
tree that produces strong wood
Compare the modern sample (right) of ash, a hard pale wood, with the pseudomorph of ancient ash at left.
with CAAM
A pseudomorph is a mineral that replaces another while keeping the original size and shape.
Sir Woolley on site at Ur
45
46
with good shock-resistance.
Because of these properties,
many axe handles today are
still made from ash.
A Call to ArchaeobotanistsThe researchers who identified
the wood species were
archaeobotanists Naomi Miller
and Chantel White. But just what
exactly do archaeobotanists do?
The clue to the answer lies in the
word used to describe them:
archaio is Greek for “ancient,” and
botane is Greek for “plant.”
Plants were used as food,
medicine, cloth, and tools in the
ancient world. Sometimes, traces
of preserved plants are found at
archaeological sites. Such finds
are known as ecofacts.
Archaeobotanists carefully extract
these ecofacts and take them back
to the lab where they can be
examined under a microscope.
When seeds are found among the
ecofacts, archaeobotanists
compare them to modern seeds to
identify the ancient plant of
origin. When wood is found, the
species can be identified by
studying the unique cells that
make up the wood’s tree rings.
Questions for ArchaeometallurgistsBut what about the axehead
itself? Who can tell us more
about it? Well, that’s the job of
archaeometallurgists. These
scientists study ancient metals
and try to figure out how and
where excavated metal was
produced and how the objects
were made. Archaeometallurgist
Moritz Jansen uses a variety of
scientific techniques to
understand the structure of an
object and the chemical
composition of the metal. For
example, x-radiography can help
scientists look under the surface
of a corroded artifact.
This imaging technique is also
non-invasive—that is, it does no
harm to the object. It gathers its
information by using the
differences in the way x-rays are
absorbed to detect variation in
the structure of the object. So,
just as doctors look at
bone x-rays to
determine
whether a
The technique known as x-ray imaging was used on the uncovered axe (above) to “see” under the corroded surface (left).
46
LET’S GO –GING
47
person has suffered a fracture, so
archaeologists look at objects to
understand their internal
structure. In the radiographic
image of the axe from Ur shown
at left, the original shape of the
corroded axe is visible. See how
the lighter areas on the
radiographic images are denser
than the darker areas.
The metal used to make the
axehead was identified as a
copper alloy. However, ancient
Ur was particularly known for its
silver and gold metal objects. If
archaeometallurgists want to
know the region from which the
gold originated, they look to the
dirt particles found within the
object. For example, some dirt
comes from rivers where the gold
was panned in ancient times.
When the gold objects were
created, tiny dirt particles were
partly melted and contaminated
the gold. By
identifying the
specific dirt fingerprint,
we can reconstruct trade routes
and figure out the source of
the gold.
Perhaps the best loved of the
objects found at Ur are tiny gold
animals (see two below) that
once belonged to a fancy set of
jewelry fashioned for the queen
buried in the Royal Tombs there.
A quick look at the little pendants
suggests that they are solid gold,
but, in fact, they are not. Each
was made using a thin sheet of
gold that was pressed over a core
of bitumen, a sticky but hard
form of asphalt. Figuring out the
composition of these pendants
was easy; the more difficult
question was: What animals
do they represent?
A Need for ZooarchaeologistsKatherine Moore, a
zooarchaeologist, took a close
look at the features of the tiny
animals and then compared
them with the features of living
animals. It is the job of
Left: A look through a microscope shows a tiny dirt particle that has been partly melted into the gold around it. Below: These gold hair ribbons were used as headdresses.
Travel back in time a few thousand years to Ur, and then picture meeting someone wearing these tiny stag figures as part of a necklace.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Bronze, for example, is an alloy of copper and tin.
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48
zooarchaeologists to study both
animal bones found at
archaeological sites and the
various ways people have used
and thought about animals.
Some of the animals
represented—
gazelles, for
example—are
easy to
identify.
The ancient
people of
Mesopotamia might
have seen deer in the
marshy area along
the river, but such
sightings would
have been rare.
And the bull? Look
closely at the bull
head at left, and you
can see that it is
wearing a false beard.
What story does this odd
combination tell? It may
be that, when included
in a royal tomb, a bull
with a beard represented
the sun-god figure and
offered an important
message about life. (See
also page 57.)
At Ur, representations of
animals were also made
out of clay—the little pig at
right (opposite), for
instance. Archaeologists
have found a great quantity
of clay around the site, as it was
constantly being deposited there
during the frequent flooding of
the Euphrates River.
Clay, which becomes ceramic
when fired, is a readily available
raw material that could easily be
shaped in various ways to make
pots, bricks, drain pipes, tablets,
tools, jewelry, and small objects
such as incense burners,
figurines, children’s toys, and
rattles. Rattles? Yes! We are still
not quite sure how these rattles
were used. They may have been
musical instruments. They were
hollow, and this little pig, for
example, produces a sound when
shaken. The radiographic image
to the right of the ceramic pig
(opposite) shows that the sound
this pig makes when shaken is
due to three small clay balls
moving about inside its body.
Call in the Ceramic ExpertsOf all the ceramic objects found
on archaeological sites, pots of
different shapes and sizes are the
most abundant. These vessels
were used as containers for
storage, transport, and food
preparation. While they break
easily, their fragments, known as
sherds, last for thousands of years
and are packed with information
just waiting to be discovered.
Where pots were made is a very
important question for
archaeologists. Most of those
excavated at Ur were probably
produced by local potters. Some,
however, may have been
transported and brought from
other places, both near and far.
To figure out where the objects
This magnificent bearded bull’s head is from the Royal Tombs at Ur. It adorned what is known today as the Great Lyre. The bull is believed to represent the sun god Shamash, the god of judgment and destiny. The figures in the panel below tells the story of the funeral ritual.
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49
were made, ceramic experts—
Marie-Claude Boileau among
them—rely on an analytical
technique called “ceramic
petrography.” It uses a special
type of microscope to examine
the mineral composition of thin
sections of ceramics. This method
can be described as one that
“fingerprints” ceramic objects. By
matching the mineral and rock
fragments in the clay to specific
geological areas, it can identify
the area where a ceramic object
was made. Using this data, we
can study trade and contact
between groups of people.
Whose Bones? Ask the Physical AnthropologistsPerhaps you are now wondering
about the people who lived and
were buried at ancient Ur.
Human skeletons offer us many
clues about the lives of peoples
who lived in the distant past. At
Ur, people were buried in a way
that made them look as if they
were sleeping. They had been
positioned on their backs with
their hands on their chests or
lying on their sides, all curled up
in a small ball.
When skeletal remains are
brought to the lab, physical
anthropologist Janet Monge and
her colleagues go to work. An
analysis of excavated bones and
teeth offers clues to the age of a
person and to whether the
skeleton is that of a male or
female. Physical anthropologists
can sometimes even tell the kind
The x-ray image at right shows the three small clay balls inside the ceramic pig (below).
The inset shows a thin section of ancient ceramic. At right is a microphotograph of a thin section of ceramic, magnified 200 times!
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50
of work a person did when alive
and even if a person suffered
from any diseases.
Teeth are especially revealing.
They can offer clues that will lead
to figuring out the kinds of foods
people in the past chewed. At Ur,
people wore their teeth down flat,
almost to the roots if they lived
50 or more years. We know that
the foods they ate everyday were
full of grit, particularly wheat
that was ground into flour for
bread. As it was similar to
sandpaper, it wore away the
projections, or cusps, on the teeth.
Teeth offer many clues as to the
age of a person at the time of
death. Children have teeth that
are replaced, beginning with a
full set of baby teeth that emerges
by the age of two and then begins
to fall out by the age of six. New
adult teeth come in up to about
20 or so years of age. Analysis of
one skeleton uncovered at Ur
revealed that the person died just
as her last adult tooth was
forming. She would have been
about 18 years of age.
Marie-Claude Boileau, the lab coordinator and ceramic specialist in CAAM, works on ancient ceramic technology, trade, and exchange in the Near East and Aegean. Tessa de Alarcon, a project conservator, is currently working on the Ur Digitization Project, a joint initiative between the Penn Museum and the British Museum to digitize material from excavations at Ur. Moritz Jansen, an archaeometallurgist in CAAM, focuses his research on Near Eastern metal production and processing. Megan Kassabaum, a professor and archaeologist in the Department of Anthropology and a
curator at the Museum, takes students to Smith Creek every summer. Janet Monge, a keeper and curator of the human skeletal collections at the Museum, focuses her interests on bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, and human evolutionary studies. Katherine Moore, a zooarchaeologist in CAAM, works on early hunters and herding peoples in South America and Asia. Chantel White, an archaeobotanist in CAAM, analyzes ancient plants to identify the diet of humans from archaeological sites in Greece, Italy, Israel, and Jordan.
Above are photos of two skeletons uncovered at Ur. The inset is a skull with elaborate headdress that was found in the Royal Tomb of the King and Queen. The full skeleton at top was found in deeper deposits at Ur and is probably the remains of an older man.
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51
Analytical work at CAAM
is conducted not only on
materials that were
excavated many years ago, but
also on materials uncovered at
archaeological sites that are active
today. In fact, projects directed by
Penn’s faculty and museum staff
are ongoing every year in different
countries. Leading one such
project is assistant professor of
anthropology Megan Kassabaum.
Yesterday’s HighwaysBefore there were cars and roads,
the rivers of North America were
the interstate highways for Native
American people who lived in
what is now the United States. The
biggest highway, the Mississippi
River, allowed those living near its
shores to travel, trade, and
communicate with many people
beyond their communities.
More than 1,300 years ago, a
group known as the Coles Creek
culture lived along the southern
part of the Mississippi. Most of
the time, they lived in small
villages scattered in the river’s
bluffs and floodplains. On special
occasions, they would gather at
sacred sites marked by large
mounds, some of which have
survived. Archaeologists are now
excavating these mounds, hoping
to learn more about the people
who built them.
Up Close at Smith CreekIn 2015, Kassabaum’s team
excavated at a mound site called
Smith Creek. Here, three large
mounds surround an open space
called a plaza. The team
determined that one mound was
used as a cemetery, while the
other two had flat tops that
probably served as foundations
for buildings or stages for ritual
activities.
On the largest mound, they
found a midden, the technical
name for a large deposit of trash.
It included broken pottery, animal
bones, and shells. These finds
offered answers to many questions
about what happened there.
Using a special technique called
On Site
Members of Kassabaum’s team work slowly and carefully as they excavate in the plaza area at Smith Creek.
with CAAM
Mounds were built by hand, one basketful of dirt at a time. Most mounds were built in stages, with dirt that was dug from large pits nearby. 51
LET’S GO –GING
52
flotation (see above), team
members were able to recover
thousands of tiny burned
fragments of plants. Analysis
of these finds revealed that
the people had prepared and
eaten food on top of the
mound, perhaps as part of a
feast or other celebration.
After the team finished
excavating at Smith Creek,
they brought the uncovered
materials back to CAAM for
cleaning and analysis. They
started by washing each artifact
carefully with a toothbrush. They
then sorted the artifacts according
to the type of material that had
been used to make them—clay,
stone, bone, shell, or charcoal.
With those tasks completed, they
then counted and weighed every
piece. All the artifacts are now
being analyzed individually, using
special techniques for each
material type.
Report from ZooarchaeologistsWhat animals did the people
using the Smith Creek mounds
hunt and fish? Zooarchaeologist
Kate Moore has been working with
graduate student Stacey Espenlaub
to find out. Study of the animal
bones found at the site has shown
that the people ate mostly white-
tailed deer, rabbits, and fish.
Several unusually shaped bones
popped up in samples from the
mounds. These had a different
story to tell. Careful matching of
bone shapes with the bones of
black bear paws in the museum’s
collection shows that Smith Creek
people had killed several bears.
Examination under the
microscope further proved that
the bears had been carefully
skinned, possibly to make a
garment or ceremonial object.
What Archaeobotany RevealsAnother method used to help
understand the prehistoric
activities at Smith Creek is
archaeobotany. Kassabaum and
undergraduate student Ally
Mitchem separated the flotation
samples into different fractions
based on size: 2mm, 1.4mm
(this is about the size of the
head of a pin!), and .71mm.
They then looked at each
fraction under the microscope
to identify the plants that are
contained in the sample.
The team members working on
the Smith Creek archaeobotanical
Above: Bones from black bear paws from Smith Creek (brown) were compared to modern bear bones (white) in the lab. Left: Fine cut marks on the black bear bone show that the bear was skinned with a stone knife.
Flotation uses water to recover tiny artifacts from the soil. Water is gently pushed through the soil from the bottom. Seeds, charcoal, and other light materials float to the top where they can be collected; heavy materials are left behind and also collected.
2mm stands for 2 millimeters, which is equal to approximately 1/12 of an inch.
On site at Smith Creek: Team member Ally Mitchem uses the technique known as flotation to recover tiny plant fragments in excavated soil.
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53
samples have made two major
discoveries thus far. First, five
burned corn kernels indicate that
the Smith Creek people might
have been some of the earliest
people in the Lower Mississippi
Valley to grow corn. Second, the
Smith Creek people burned lots of
sweetgum balls in a small pit in
the plaza. Right now, the answer
to why they did this is still
unknown, but more excavation
and more archaeobotanical
analysis may help solve
this mystery!
The Adventures of By ChuCk Whelon
Left: Here, Ally Mitchem is working to identify seeds in a paleobotanical sample from Smith Creek.
Far left: A close-up of a branch of a sweetgum tree, with two leaves and seven spiky green fruit balls.
53
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54
In the
Lab At CAAM, archaeological
scientists work closely
with conservators, who
are responsible for the
preservation and care of these
objects so that they can be
studied and displayed, not just
now but in the future as well.
Objects in the museum are often
brought to the conservation lab
for a condition check—much like
your regular check-up at the
doctor’s office. Once in the lab,
they are examined, and each
observation is documented. The
goal is to track the condition of
each artifact and to flag any that
have problems.
Conservators at work
with CAAM
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LET’S GO –GING
Salt—the Good and the BadA key problem facing conservators
who work with archaeological
material is salt. It is true that there
are many types of salt, including
the kind we use on food. Regardless
of type, many common salts
dissolve in water. As a result, salt is
found not only on the dinner table
but also in groundwater.
When ceramics and metals are
underground before they are
excavated, they are exposed to
ground water and can absorb the
water much as a sponge does. But
it is not only water that they are
absorbing; the salts are also
being absorbed. As long as an
artifact stays wet, with the salts
dissolved in the water, there is no
problem. But, once the objects are
excavated, the exposure to air
causes problems for both metals
and ceramics.
For ceramics, the problem
happens as the object dries out.
As the water evaporates out
of the ceramic, the salts stay
behind, forming crystals.
These crystals can form
harmlessly on the surface, or
they can crystallize inside the
ceramic, breaking it apart as the
salt crystallizes. For an example,
see the photos above of a camel
figurine that was uncovered at
Ur. The cracking and
fragmentation seen on the camel
at right were both caused by the
crystallization of salts. It is the
job of conservators to treat these
objects. They often do so by
soaking them in water that has
no salts in order to dissolve the
salts in the ceramic and remove
them.
When Air Meets SaltMetal reacts quickly when it is
excavated and then exposed to
air and water. For example, the
copper in pennies goes from
shiny to red-brown as the coins
react with the air. Copper
artifacts do the same, and the
corrosion can be red or green,
depending on the amount of
water and air that an object met
while it was buried in the ground.
All usually stabilizes once an
object is excavated.
If, however, there are salts in
the groundwater, then their effect
on the metal is to create pustules,
or small bumps, on the surface of
the object. These can burst open
after the object is excavated,
exposing bright green powdery
corrosion. The corrosion on the
The cracking and fragmentation (inset shows a close-up view) seen on the camel at left were caused by the crystallization of salts. Below is the camel figurine after treatment.
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56
head of the pin at right that was
found at Ur was caused by the
copper reacting with salts, water,
and air.
The corrosion process is often
called bronze disease, because if
left untreated, it will spread until
there is no metal left. To prevent
this from happening,
conservators treat these objects by
cleaning and immersing them in
a special chemical solution
designed to do just that.
The inset shows a close-up of the top of a copper alloy pin found at Ur. See the effect of bronze disease?
The Raven Pipe
In the digital age, it is still important
to see actual objects. I saw pictures
of the raven pipe when I was a
student at Southern Illinois University-
Carbondale and a graduate student at
Northwestern University. The raven
usually was pictured in profile, with its
beak on the pipe’s platform. “Raven
pecking the head or the profile of a
human face” was the usual description.
In Hopewell culture, ravens are
associated with the dead and related
rituals.
As a new curator at the Gilcrease
Museum in 2010, I held the beautiful
raven pipe in my hands for the first time.
The body of the raven is finely shaped
and polished. Feathers of the wings and
tail are artfully carved. The eyes are
freshwater pearls. I thought about the
description that I had read so many
times and how it was interpreted.
Looking closely now at the actual
artifact, I realized that my perception
was totally wrong! I saw now that the
raven’s beak touched the head behind
the eye and in front of the ear of the
human head. A single curled line was
engraved into the side of the head. The
location of the beak and the curl suggests
that the raven is whispering to the man.
Could this curl be a speech scroll, an
illustrated device that is used to denote a
speech, song, or even a sound? This
raven is not pecking at the man’s face; he
speaks to the man. Perhaps this is a spirit
that is passing on knowledge. The pipe
itself is a ritual item, smoked by its
owner for spiritual purposes. Very likely,
the pipe was an important item in its
owner’s personal ritual possessions.
As we move into the digital age, this
pipe offers a lesson that needs to be
remembered: Seeing the actual object
still has the power to excite and
educate in a way that images of that
object do not.
The Hopewell culture flourished in Ohio and other parts of eastern North America during the Middle Woodland Period, possibly as early as 100 b.c.e.56
by Robert B. Pickering
IN THE HEADLINES
57
This tiny golden bull is actually a bead that
was part of an ornament buried with a
Sumerian queen named Pu-abi around
2500 b.c. It is just over three-quarters of an
inch wide. British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley
uncovered it in 1927 at the site of Ur in present-day
Iraq. The bull is shown with a false beard tied over
his nose, suggesting that he represents an image
of the Mesopotamian sun god, who sometimes
was shown as a bearded bull. In addition to this
bull and another of similar size, the ornament had
pairs of gold beads in the shape of rams, deer, and
gazelle. Also part of the ornament are almost 10,000
tiny beads made of blue lapis lazuli, an imported semi-
precious gemstone. Today, the jewelry and many other
items from the site are on display at the University of
Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology in Philadelphia.
A Little Bull
ART-I- FACTS
THEN & NOW
October 2016 Volume 18 Number 8 cricketmedia.com $4.95
WHAT’S CHANGED?The Romans chose the Golden Eagle as their symbol, while the U.S. chose the Bald Eagle. The Romans closely associated the eagle with Jupiter and their religious beliefs; the same is not true for the people in the U.S. To this day, accounts differ as to why the Bald Eagle was chosen as a U.S. symbol.
THEN: For the ancient Romans, the eagle (aquila in Latin) was most often pictured with their king of gods, Jupiter. They saw this bird as embodying the traits of a leader: courage, strength, and longevity. The eagle’s image was used in religious rituals, as well as on battle standards, flags, and public monuments. The SPQR seen on the insignia below is an acronym for the Latin phrase Senatus Populusque Romanus (“The Senate and the Roman People”).
NOW: The United States adopted the Bald Eagle as its official national symbol in 1782. Representing majesty, power, freedom, and endurance, the eagle is pictured on the one-dollar bill, U.S. passports, and U.S. military insignia, as well as on the Seal of the President of the United States, as shown here.
WHAT’S THE SAME? For both Rome and the United States, the traits represented by eagles are those officials believed represented their respective nations. There were many people, at the time of the founding of the United States, who compared the U.S. with Rome and believed the eagle symbol was appropriate for the new nation.