(6.1)

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(6.2)Central Processing Unit Architecture

Architecture overview Machine organization

–von Neumann Speeding up CPU operations

–multiple registers–pipelining– superscalar and VLIW

CISC vs. RISC

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(6.3)Computer Architecture

Major components of a computer–Central Processing Unit (CPU)–memory–peripheral devices

Architecture is concerned with– internal structures of each– interconnections

»speed and width

– relative speeds of components Want maximum execution speed

–Balance is often critical issueAdmission.edhole.com

(6.4)Computer Architecture (continued)

CPU–performs arithmetic and logical operations

– synchronous operation–may consider instruction set architecture»how machine looks to a programmer

–detailed hardware design

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(6.5)Computer Architecture (continued)

Memory– stores programs and data–organized as

»bit»byte = 8 bits (smallest addressable

location)»word = 4 bytes (typically; machine

dependent)

– instructions consist of operation codes and addresses

oprn

oprn

oprn

addr 1

addr 2

addr 3

addr 2

addr 1

addr 1

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(6.6)Computer Architecture (continued)

Numeric data representations– integer (exact representation)

»sign-magnitude»2’s complement

•negative values change 0 to 1, add 1

–floating point (approximate representation)»scientific notation: 0.3481 x 106

» inherently imprecise» IEEE Standard 754-1985

s magnitude

s exp significand

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(6.7)Simple Machine Organization

Institute for Advanced Studies machine (1947)–“von Neumann machine”

»ALU performs transfers between memory and I/O devices

»note two instructions per memory word

main memory

Input- Output Equipment

Arithmetic - Logic Unit

Program Control Unit

op code op codeaddress address

0 8 20 28 39Admission.edhole.com

(6.8)Simple Machine Organization (continued)

ALU does arithmetic and logical comparisons– AC = accumulator holds results– MQ = memory-quotient holds second portion of long results– MBR = memory buffer register holds data while operation

executes

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(6.9)Simple Machine Organization (continued)

Program control determines what computer does based on instruction read from memory– MAR = memory address register holds address of memory

cell to be read– PC = program counter; address of next instruction to be

read– IR = instruction register holds instruction being executed– IBR holds right half of instruction read from memory

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(6.10)Simple Machine Organization (continued)

Machine operates on fetch-execute cycle

Fetch–PC MAR– read M(MAR) into MBR– copy left and right instructions into IR and IBR

Execute–address part of IR MAR– read M(MAR) into MBR–execute opcodeAdmission.edhole.co

m

(6.11)Simple Machine Organization (continued)

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(6.12)Architecture Families

Before mid-60’s, every new machine had a different instruction set architecture– programs from previous generation didn’t run

on new machine– cost of replacing software became too large

IBM System/360 created family concept– single instruction set architecture– wide range of price and performance with

same software Performance improvements based on

different detailed implementations– memory path width (1 byte to 8 bytes)– faster, more complex CPU design– greater I/O throughput and overlap

“Software compatibility” now a major issue– partially offset by high level language (HLL)

softwareAdmission.edhole.com

(6.13)Architecture Families

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(6.14)Multiple Register Machines

Initially, machines had only a few registers–2 to 8 or 16 common– registers more expensive than memory

Most instructions operated between memory locations– results had to start from and end up in memory, so fewer instructions»although more complex

–means smaller programs and (supposedly) faster execution» fewer instructions and data to move between

memory and ALU But registers are much faster than memory

–30 times fasterAdmission.edhole.com

(6.15)Multiple Register Machines (continued)

Also, many operands are reused within a short time–waste time loading operand again the next time it’s needed

Depending on mix of instructions and operand use, having many registers may lead to less traffic to memory and faster execution

Most modern machines use a multiple register architecture–maximum number about 512, common number 32 integer, 32 floating pointAdmission.edhole.co

m

(6.16)Pipelining

One way to speed up CPU is to increase clock rate– limitations on how fast clock can run to complete instruction

Another way is to execute more than one instruction at one time

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(6.17)Pipelining

Pipelining breaks instruction execution down into several stages–put registers between stages to “buffer” data and control

–execute one instruction–as first starts second stage, execute second instruction, etc.

– speedup same as number of stages as long as pipe is full

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(6.18)Pipelining (continued)

Consider an example with 6 stages–FI = fetch instruction–DI = decode instruction–CO = calculate location of operand–FO = fetch operand–EI = execute instruction–WO = write operand (store result)

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(6.19)Pipelining Example

Executes 9 instructions in 14 cycles rather than 54 for sequential executionAdmission.edhole.com

(6.20)Pipelining (continued)

Hazards to pipelining– conditional jump

» instruction 3 branches to instruction 15»pipeline must be flushed and restarted

– later instruction needs operand being calculated by instruction still in pipeline»pipeline stalls until result ready

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(6.21)Pipelining Problem Example

Is this really a problem?Admission.edhole.com

(6.22)Real-life Problem

Not all instructions execute in one clock cycle–floating point takes longer than integer– fp divide takes longer than fp multiply which takes longer than fp add

– typical values» integer add/subtract 1»memory reference 1» fp add 2 (make 2 stages)» fp (or integer) multiply 6 (make 2

stages)» fp (or integer) divide 15

Break floating point unit into a sub-pipeline–execute up to 6 instructions at onceAdmission.edhole.com

(6.23)Pipelining (continued)

This is not simple to implement– note all 6 instructions could finish at the

same time!!Admission.edhole.com

(6.24)More Speedup

Pipelined machines issue one instruction each clock cycle–how to speed up CPU even more?

Issue more than one instruction per clock cycle

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(6.25)Superscalar Architectures

Superscalar machines issue a variable number of instructions each clock cycle, up to some maximum– instructions must satisfy some criteria of independence»simple choice is maximum of one fp and

one integer instruction per clock»need separate execution paths for each

possible simultaneous instruction issue– compiled code from non-superscalar implementation of same architecture runs unchanged, but slower

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(6.26)Superscalar Example

Each instruction path may be pipelined

0 23 4 5 67 8 1 clock

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(6.27)Superscalar Problem

Instruction-level parallelism–what if two successive instructions can’t be executed in parallel?»data dependencies, or two instructions

of slow type

Design machine to increase multiple execution opportunities

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(6.28)VLIW Architectures

Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) architectures store several simple instructions in one long instruction fetched from memory–number and type are fixed

»e.g., 2 memory reference, 2 floating point, one integer

–need one functional unit for each possible instruction»2 fp units, 1 integer unit, 2 MBRs»all run synchronized

–each instruction is stored in a single word»requires wider memory communication

paths»many instructions may be empty, meaning

wasted code spaceAdmission.edhole.com

(6.29)VLIW Example

MemoryRef 1

MemoryRef 2

FP 1 FP 2 Integer

LD F0, 0(R1) LD F6, 8(R1)

LD F10,16(R1)

LD F14,24(R1)

SBR1,R1,#48

LDF18,32(R1)

LDF22,40(R1)

AD F4,F0,F2 AD F8,F6,F2

LDF26,48(R1)

ADF12,F10,F2

ADF16,F14,F2

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(6.30)Instruction Level Parallelism

Success of superscalar and VLIW machines depends on number of instructions that occur together that can be issued in parallel–no dependencies–no branches

Compilers can help create parallelism Speculation techniques try to overcome

branch problems–assume branch is taken–execute instructions but don’t let them store results until status of branch is known

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(6.31)CISC vs. RISC

CISC = Complex Instruction Set Computer

RISC = Reduced Instruction Set Computer

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(6.32)CISC vs. RISC (continued)

Historically, machines tend to add features over time– instruction opcodes

» IBM 70X, 70X0 series went from 24 opcodes to 185 in 10 years

»same time performance increased 30 times–addressing modes– special purpose registers

Motivations are to– improve efficiency, since complex instructions can be implemented in hardware and execute faster

–make life easier for compiler writers– support more complex higher-level languages

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(6.33)CISC vs. RISC

Examination of actual code indicated many of these features were not used

RISC advocates proposed– simple, limited instruction set– large number of general purpose registers»and mostly register operations

–optimized instruction pipeline Benefits should include

– faster execution of instructions commonly used

– faster design and implementationAdmission.edhole.com

(6.34)CISC vs. RISC

Comparing some architectures

Year Instr. Instr.Size

AddrModes

Registers

IBM370/168

1973 208 2 - 6 4 16

VAX11/780

1978 303 2 - 57 22 16

I 80486 1989 235 1 - 11 11 8

M 88000 1988 51 4 3 32

MIPSR4000

1991 94 4 1 32

IBM 6000 1990 184 4 2 32Admission.edhole.com

(6.35)CISC vs. RISC

Which approach is right? Typically, RISC takes about 1/5 the

design time–but CISC have adopted RISC techniques

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