Data Collection Data Collection Techniques and ToolsTechniques and Tools

ARUN.MARUN.M

Senior LecturerSenior Lecturer

KVMCONKVMCON

DataData are observable and measurable

facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study.

Data collection plan -why?

To yield accurate, valid and meaningful data that are maximally effective in answering research question.

Five ‘W’ of Data Collection

What data to Collect ? Whom ? Who ? Where ? When ?

How to collect data?

Primary Data are those which are

collected for specific purpose directly from the field of enquiry and original in nature.

Such data are published by authorities who themselves are responsible for their collection.

They are original and raw.

Example: DocumentsCreative worksInterviewsMan-made materialsSurveys

Secondary Data This is any source

cited for its second-hand information from a different work.

It also pertains on the data which have already collected by other person who entitled to organize a data.

Example:Unpublished thesis and dissertationsManuscriptBooksJournals

SOU SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Primary SourcePrimary Source•Data is collected by

researcher himself

•Data is gathered through questionnaire,

interviews,observations etc.

Secondary SourceSecondary Source•Data collected,

compiled or written by other

researchers eg. books, journals, newspapers•Any reference must

be acknowledged

Data collection methods

Ways of gathering information needed to address a research problem.

What data to be collected, (Problem and sub-problems)

who will collect the data (Training of data collectors)

From whom the data will be collected (Population/sample)

When will the data be collected (Time period) From where the data will be collected (Setting)

SELECTION OF METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Nature of the phenomenon under study

Types of research subjects Types of research studyPurpose of research studySize of the study sample

Distribution of the target population

Time frame of the studyLiteracy level of the subjectsAvailability of resources and

manpowerResearchers knowledge and

level of competence

Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods

InterviewInterview

An interview involves verbal communication An interview involves verbal communication between the researcher and the subject between the researcher and the subject during which information is provided to the during which information is provided to the researcher researcher

Effective way of gathering information

INTERVIEW

Involves verbal and non-verbal communications

Can be conducted face to face, by telephone,

online or through mail

Interview Process

Prepare your interview schedule

Pre-interview introduction

Carrying the interview forward

Recording the interview

Developing Rapport

Closing the Interview

BENEFITSBENEFITS

Provide in-depth and detailed informationProvide in-depth and detailed information Permits greater depth of responsePermits greater depth of response Data from illiterate subjectsData from illiterate subjects Higher responseHigher response Clarify misunderstandingsClarify misunderstandings Ask questions at different levelsAsk questions at different levels Helps to gather supplementary information Helps to gather supplementary information

DrawbacksDrawbacks Time consumingTime consuming Cost affairsCost affairs Different interviewers may understand and Different interviewers may understand and

translate interviews in different ways.translate interviews in different ways. High degree chance for interview biasesHigh degree chance for interview biases

TYPESTYPES

Structured Interview Structured Interview

(Standardized Interview , Directive Interview)(Standardized Interview , Directive Interview)

Structured interview refers to data collection in Structured interview refers to data collection in which interviewer has an interview schedule in which interviewer has an interview schedule in which the questions are listed in order in which which the questions are listed in order in which they are to be answered . they are to be answered .

Subjects are asked to respond to the same Subjects are asked to respond to the same questions, in the same order and with the same questions, in the same order and with the same set of response options set of response options

Unstructured InterviewUnstructured Interview

Nonstandardized Interview ,Nondirective interviewNonstandardized Interview ,Nondirective interview

Unstructured interview is a method wherein the Unstructured interview is a method wherein the questions can be changed to meet the respondents questions can be changed to meet the respondents intelligence, understanding, and beliefs.intelligence, understanding, and beliefs.

Interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely Interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely about the given topic with minimum prompting.about the given topic with minimum prompting.

No preplanned scheduleNo preplanned schedule

Semi-structured InterviewsSemi-structured Interviews

Is a flexible method that allows new Is a flexible method that allows new questions to be brought up during the questions to be brought up during the interview , depending upon the situation interview , depending upon the situation during the interviewduring the interview

Indepth InterviewIndepth Interview

Is an intensive and investigative Is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at studying the interview conducted and aimed at studying the respondents opinion and emotions on the basis respondents opinion and emotions on the basis of interview guide.of interview guide.

Focus Group InterviewFocus Group Interview

Where 8-12 members are brought Where 8-12 members are brought together under the guidance of a trained together under the guidance of a trained interviewer to focus on a specific phenomenon interviewer to focus on a specific phenomenon to gain insight from the appropriate sample or to gain insight from the appropriate sample or target population.target population.

Telephone InterviewTelephone Interview

ObservationObservation

a method of collecting data regarding a method of collecting data regarding occurrences or behaviors that can be occurrences or behaviors that can be observed through senses with or without observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.mechanical devices.

can be used to gather a variety of information can be used to gather a variety of information

UsesUses

To understand ongoing process or situationTo understand ongoing process or situation To gather data on individual behaviors or To gather data on individual behaviors or

interactions between peopleinteractions between people To know about a physical setting.To know about a physical setting. Data collection where other methods are not Data collection where other methods are not

possible.possible.

TypesTypes

Structured ObservationStructured Observation

Researcher prepares a structured or Researcher prepares a structured or semi-structured tool in advance to observe the semi-structured tool in advance to observe the phenomenon.phenomenon.

check listcheck list

rating scalerating scale

Unstructured ObservationUnstructured ObservationObservation is made with minimally structured Observation is made with minimally structured

and carried- out by using unstructured toolsand carried- out by using unstructured tools

Video recordingVideo recording

Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

Observer may live or work in field and Observer may live or work in field and actively participate in ongoing activities for actively participate in ongoing activities for an extended periodan extended period

Nonparticipant ObservationNonparticipant Observation

Observer works as an secret listener or Observer works as an secret listener or observer , where an attempt is made to observe observer , where an attempt is made to observe people without interacting with them.people without interacting with them.

Planning For ObservationPlanning For Observation

Focus DeterminationFocus Determination Data collection DesignData collection Design Site selectionSite selection Observer selectionObserver selection Observer trainingObserver training Appropriate observation timingsAppropriate observation timings

AdvantagesAdvantages

Collects data so as when and where an activity Collects data so as when and where an activity or event is happening.or event is happening.

Does not believe in peoples ability or Does not believe in peoples ability or willingness to give informationwillingness to give information

Directly allows to notice what people do rather Directly allows to notice what people do rather than checking what people tell they didthan checking what people tell they did

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Observers biasObservers bias Hawthorne effectHawthorne effect Time consuming and expensiveTime consuming and expensive

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

A questionnaire is a structured instrument A questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of series of questions prepared by the consisting of series of questions prepared by the researcher that a research subject is asked to researcher that a research subject is asked to complete , to gather data from individuals about complete , to gather data from individuals about knowledge, attitude, beliefs and feelings knowledge, attitude, beliefs and feelings

Type of questions Type of questions Open format questions Open format questions Those questions that provide Those questions that provide

opportunity for the respondents to opportunity for the respondents to express their opinion in there own wayexpress their opinion in there own way..

Closed format questions Closed format questions These questions offer a number of These questions offer a number of

alternative replies from which the alternative replies from which the subject must choose the one that most subject must choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.likely matches the appropriate answer.

Subtypes Of Closed Format Subtypes Of Closed Format QuestionsQuestions

Dichotomous QuestionsDichotomous Questions

These requires the respondents to make These requires the respondents to make choices between two responses.choices between two responses.

eg Have you ever been hospitalisedeg Have you ever been hospitalised

yes/noyes/no

Multiple Choice QuestionsMultiple Choice Questions

These requires the respondents to make These requires the respondents to make choices between two or more alternative choices between two or more alternative responsesresponses

Eg which of the following disease is sexually Eg which of the following disease is sexually transmitted ?transmitted ?

a diabetes mellitus a diabetes mellitus b hypothyroidismb hypothyroidism

c syphilisc syphilis d hypertensiond hypertension

Cafeteria QuestionsCafeteria Questions

These are special type of multiple choice These are special type of multiple choice question that asks respondents to select a response question that asks respondents to select a response that mostly correspond to their viewsthat mostly correspond to their views

Eg what do you think about hormone replacement Eg what do you think about hormone replacement therapytherapy

a.a. Its dangerous should be avoidedIts dangerous should be avoided

b.b. One should be cautious while using itOne should be cautious while using it

c.c. I am uncertain about my viewI am uncertain about my view

Rank Order QuestionsRank Order Questions

These questions that asks respondents to rank These questions that asks respondents to rank their responses from most favorable to least their responses from most favorable to least favorable. favorable.

Eg what according to you is most important for Eg what according to you is most important for your lifeyour life

a. money a. money b. educationb. education c. familyc. family d. d. healthhealth

Contingency QuestionsContingency Questions

The questions that is asked further only if the The questions that is asked further only if the respondents gives a particular response to respondents gives a particular response to previous questionprevious question

Eg are you stressed?Eg are you stressed?

a. noa. no b. yes, what are the reasons?b. yes, what are the reasons?

Rating QuestionsRating Questions

These questions ask the respondents to judge These questions ask the respondents to judge something along an ordered dimensionsomething along an ordered dimension

Eg how you rank educational quality in indiaEg how you rank educational quality in india

1 2 3 4

Good Fair Poor Very poor

Importance QuestionsImportance Questions

In this respondents asked to rate the important In this respondents asked to rate the important of a particular issue on a rating scaleof a particular issue on a rating scale

Eg exercising everyday is …………. for healthEg exercising everyday is …………. for health

1 2 3 4 5

Extremely important

Very important

Somewhat important

Not very important

Not at all important

Likert questionsLikert questions

Likert questions help to know how Likert questions help to know how strong a respondent agrees with a particular strong a respondent agrees with a particular statement.statement.

Eg Is this community a good place to raise Eg Is this community a good place to raise children.children.1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Agree

Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Disagree

Bipolar questionsBipolar questions

Questions that have two extreme Questions that have two extreme answers.answers.

Respondents has to mark response between Respondents has to mark response between two opposite ends of scaletwo opposite ends of scale

Matrix questionsMatrix questions

Matrix questions include multiple Matrix questions include multiple questions, and identical response categories are questions, and identical response categories are assigned.assigned.

Methods of questionnaire Methods of questionnaire administrationadministration

Personally administeredPersonally administered PostalPostal ElectronicElectronic Phone Phone

AdvantagesAdvantages

Cost effectiveCost effective Easy to analyseEasy to analyse Requires less time and energy to administerRequires less time and energy to administer Reduce biasReduce bias Used for large sample sizeUsed for large sample size Less intrusive than phone or face to face Less intrusive than phone or face to face

interview.interview.

DisadvantageDisadvantage

Not suitable to allNot suitable to all Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by

someone else.someone else. Gives only superficial informationGives only superficial information Chances of misinterpretationChances of misinterpretation People can lie.People can lie.

Guidelines For Designing Good Guidelines For Designing Good QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

General pointsGeneral points Developed exactly in accordance with the Developed exactly in accordance with the

study objectivestudy objective Should begin with the instructions for the Should begin with the instructions for the

respondents to provide the responserespondents to provide the response Questionnaire should be concise, precise and Questionnaire should be concise, precise and

brief because lengthy questionnaires may lead brief because lengthy questionnaires may lead to boredom among respondentsto boredom among respondents

Questions outside the respondents experience Questions outside the respondents experience should not be askedshould not be asked

In asking questions about the past events too In asking questions about the past events too much reliance should not be placed on the much reliance should not be placed on the respondents memory.respondents memory.

Questions that are likely to lead to bias in the Questions that are likely to lead to bias in the respondents should be avoided.respondents should be avoided.

Clear and simpleClear and simple Open ended questions should be avoidedOpen ended questions should be avoided Avoid questions with difficult conceptsAvoid questions with difficult concepts

Controversial and ambiguous questions should Controversial and ambiguous questions should be avoidedbe avoided

Structure of the questionnaire should be in Structure of the questionnaire should be in according to the form in which the responses are according to the form in which the responses are to be recordedto be recorded

A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied by introduction to the study, purpose and by introduction to the study, purpose and directions to fill the questionnaire.directions to fill the questionnaire.

Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire should be avoided.should be avoided.

Sequence Of QuestionsSequence Of Questions

There should be logical sequence of the There should be logical sequence of the questions in the questionnaire.questions in the questionnaire.

Researcher has to make sure that the answer to Researcher has to make sure that the answer to a question is not derived from a previous a question is not derived from a previous question.question.

Flow of question from general to specificFlow of question from general to specific Flow of question from least to most sensitive.Flow of question from least to most sensitive.

The questionnaire should generally start with The questionnaire should generally start with demographic profiles of the subjects and demographic profiles of the subjects and followed by specific questions according to followed by specific questions according to the objectives of the study.the objectives of the study.

Question ConstructionQuestion Construction Use statements that can be interpreted in same Use statements that can be interpreted in same

way by all subjectsway by all subjects Use statements that persons have different Use statements that persons have different

opinions and may give different answersopinions and may give different answers Use only one aspect of construct in which you Use only one aspect of construct in which you

are interestedare interested Avoid asking double-barrelled questions Avoid asking double-barrelled questions

containing two distinct ideas or conceptcontaining two distinct ideas or concept

Avoid leading, loaded , ambitious and long Avoid leading, loaded , ambitious and long questionsquestions

Avoid negative questionsAvoid negative questions Use positive statementsUse positive statements Assumptions should not be made about Assumptions should not be made about

respondentrespondent Comprehensive and clear wording should be usedComprehensive and clear wording should be used Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Rating scalesRating scales

Rating scales refers to scales with a set of Rating scales refers to scales with a set of opinion , which describes varying degree opinion , which describes varying degree of attitude being observed.of attitude being observed.

TypesTypes

Graphic Rating ScaleGraphic Rating ScaleIn this scale the performance is In this scale the performance is

printed horizontally at various points from lowest printed horizontally at various points from lowest to highest. It includes the numerical point .It is to highest. It includes the numerical point .It is anchored by two extremes to respondents for anchored by two extremes to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.evaluation of a concept or object.

Eg – How much are you satisfied with noise control Eg – How much are you satisfied with noise control in your wardin your ward

Least Least MostMost

Descriptive Rating ScaleDescriptive Rating Scale

Do not use number , but divide the Do not use number , but divide the assessment into series of verbal phrases to assessment into series of verbal phrases to indicate the level of performance.indicate the level of performance.

Eg Judge the level of performance in causalityEg Judge the level of performance in causality

level of clinical performancelevel of clinical performanceNursing personnel in the ward

Very active

Active Moderately

Active

Passive

Anandu

Arun

Nithin

Numerical Rating ScaleNumerical Rating Scale

Divides the evaluation criteria into a Divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points, but defines only fixed number of points, but defines only numbers at the extremes. In these scales, each numbers at the extremes. In these scales, each statement is generally assigned a numerical statement is generally assigned a numerical score ranging from 1-10 or even more.score ranging from 1-10 or even more.

Eg pain assessment numerical scaleEg pain assessment numerical scale

no painno pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 worst pain2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 worst pain

Comparative Rating ScaleComparative Rating Scale

The researcher makes a judgment about The researcher makes a judgment about an attribute of a person by comparing it with an attribute of a person by comparing it with that of a similar other person. that of a similar other person.

AdvantagesAdvantages Easy to measure and score the measured attributes.Easy to measure and score the measured attributes. Has a wide range of application in nursing researchHas a wide range of application in nursing research Easily used for a large group.Easily used for a large group. Used for assessment of interests, attitudes, and Used for assessment of interests, attitudes, and

personal characteristics.personal characteristics. Used to evaluate performance and skills.Used to evaluate performance and skills. Are adaptable and flexible research instruments.Are adaptable and flexible research instruments.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

It is difficult to fix up rating about many It is difficult to fix up rating about many aspects of an individual.aspects of an individual.

Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.

Likert scalesLikert scales named after the psychologist Rensis Likertnamed after the psychologist Rensis Likert used to assess attitude or opinion of subjects regarding used to assess attitude or opinion of subjects regarding

some phenomenonsome phenomenon consists of several declarative statements that express a consists of several declarative statements that express a

view point on a topicview point on a topic Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which

they agree or disagree with the opinionthey agree or disagree with the opinion The number of responses may range from four to seven The number of responses may range from four to seven Values are placed on each response, with a value of Values are placed on each response, with a value of one one

on the most negative response and a value of five on the on the most negative response and a value of five on the most positive responsivemost positive responsive on a five point scale on a five point scale ..

DefinitionDefinition

Likert scale is a composite measure Likert scale is a composite measure of attitude that involve summation of scores on of attitude that involve summation of scores on set of items to which respondents are asked to set of items to which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement.disagreement.

Direct-ion of scoring*

ItemsSA A U D SD

+

_

_

+

+

1. I like to give care to patients with HIV/AIDS

2. AIDS is a punishment from God

3.Immoral people develop AIDS

4.AIDS patients are to be treated like any other patients

5. AIDS patients rights are to be protected.

Agreement with positively worded items and Agreement with positively worded items and disagreement with negatively worded items are disagreement with negatively worded items are assigned scores. assigned scores.

Thus a higher score indicates higher degree of Thus a higher score indicates higher degree of agreement. agreement.

A person’s total score is determined by adding A person’s total score is determined by adding together individual item scores together individual item scores

The summation feature of such scales makes it The summation feature of such scales makes it possible to make fine discriminations among possible to make fine discriminations among people with different viewpoints people with different viewpoints

UsesUses Used to measure the attitudes, values and feelings Used to measure the attitudes, values and feelings

of the people about specific concepts such as of the people about specific concepts such as situations, people, places, objects, programmes, situations, people, places, objects, programmes, practices, policies and so on.practices, policies and so on.

It may also be used to assess the opinions of the It may also be used to assess the opinions of the respondents about a particular abstract concept.respondents about a particular abstract concept.

It collects the opinions of people with various It collects the opinions of people with various attitudes, emotions, and feelings towards a attitudes, emotions, and feelings towards a particular concept.particular concept.

AdvantagesAdvantages

Relatively easy to construct.Relatively easy to construct. More reliable and valid tool to measure the More reliable and valid tool to measure the

psychosocial variables.psychosocial variables. It is less time consuming during construction It is less time consuming during construction

and administration.and administration.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

Respondents may feel forced to answer the Respondents may feel forced to answer the questions.questions.

Feeling of the respondents may not be fully Feeling of the respondents may not be fully assessed due to researchers preplanned assessed due to researchers preplanned statements and categories.statements and categories.

Casual approach of respondents in these scales Casual approach of respondents in these scales may provide misleading data.may provide misleading data.

Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale consists of two opposite adjectives with a 7- consists of two opposite adjectives with a 7-

point scale between thempoint scale between them

The respondents are asked to rate a concept The respondents are asked to rate a concept by selecting one point on the scale that best by selecting one point on the scale that best describes his or her view of the concept describes his or her view of the concept

The values for the scale are summed to The values for the scale are summed to obtain one score for each subjectobtain one score for each subject..

Definition Definition

Semantic differential scale is a type of Semantic differential scale is a type of rating scale designed to measure the rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events and connotative meaning of objects, events and concepts. concepts.

Example of a Semantic Differential Example of a Semantic Differential Male NurseMale Nurse

Competent ___7*___6___5___4____3____2____1__ incompetentCompetent ___7*___6___5___4____3____2____1__ incompetent

Cold ___1____2___3___4____5____6____7 WarmCold ___1____2___3___4____5____6____7 Warm

Bad Bad ________________________________ Good ________________________________ Good Responsible ________________________________ irresponsibleResponsible ________________________________ irresponsible

Successful ________________________________ UnsuccessfulSuccessful ________________________________ Unsuccessful Important ________________________________ unimportantImportant ________________________________ unimportant

Advantages Advantages

A convenient method to assess the beliefs, A convenient method to assess the beliefs, attitudes, and values in quantitative form.attitudes, and values in quantitative form.

Easy to administerEasy to administer Provide reasonable valid and reliable Provide reasonable valid and reliable

quantitative data.quantitative data.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages

It is difficult to select the relevant concepts, It is difficult to select the relevant concepts, which are appropriate for any given which are appropriate for any given investigation.investigation.

It is time consuming to find the appropriate It is time consuming to find the appropriate adjective pairs.adjective pairs.

Visual analogue ScalesVisual analogue Scales used to assess perception of stimuli such as pain, used to assess perception of stimuli such as pain,

sleep quality, anxiety, severity of symptoms etc.sleep quality, anxiety, severity of symptoms etc.

consists of a linear scale, anchored by two words or consists of a linear scale, anchored by two words or phrasesphrases

The subject is asked to place a mark through a line The subject is asked to place a mark through a line to indicate the intensity of the stimulus. to indicate the intensity of the stimulus.

The distance between the mark and the left of the The distance between the mark and the left of the scale is considered as the value of the stimuli scale is considered as the value of the stimuli

Definition Definition

Visual analogous scale is a tool used to help a Visual analogous scale is a tool used to help a person rate the intensity of certain sensations person rate the intensity of certain sensations and feelings, such as pain.and feelings, such as pain.

For example, the visual analogue scale for For example, the visual analogue scale for pain is a straight line with no pain at one end the pain is a straight line with no pain at one end the worst pain imaginable at the other end, A worst pain imaginable at the other end, A patient marks a point on the line that matches patient marks a point on the line that matches the amount of pain he or she feels.the amount of pain he or she feels.

Example of a Visual analogue scaleExample of a Visual analogue scale

No ____________________________________ No ____________________________________ Pain as bad Pain as bad

pain pain as it can be.as it can be.

Advantages Advantages

It is a reliable and valid tool to measure the It is a reliable and valid tool to measure the intensity of certain sensations and feelings. intensity of certain sensations and feelings.

The quantitative assessment is highly The quantitative assessment is highly subjective phenomenon is possible by this subjective phenomenon is possible by this scale. scale.

This scale is of most value when looking at This scale is of most value when looking at changes within individual.changes within individual.

Disadvantages Disadvantages

This scale cannot be used for comparing This scale cannot be used for comparing results across a group of individuals at the results across a group of individuals at the same time.same time.

In measuring pain, the scale does not afford In measuring pain, the scale does not afford the patient an opportunity to record increases the patient an opportunity to record increases in pain, thereby creating a bias in favour of in pain, thereby creating a bias in favour of treatment.treatment.

In measuring pain or such sensations, the In measuring pain or such sensations, the reliability of this scale is low owing to the reliability of this scale is low owing to the patient's need to recall their initial pain patient's need to recall their initial pain severity.severity.

BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODSMETHODS

Involves the collection of biophysiological data from the subjects by using specialized equipments to determine determine physical and biological statistics of subjects

PURPOSESPURPOSES

To study basic physiological process

basic physiological processes that are relevant to nursing care.

eg A study of the person related to biophysiological reactions during period of stress.

To study physiological outcome of To study physiological outcome of nursing carenursing care

Used in studies exploring and documenting the ways in which nursing actions affect patients biophysiologic outcome.

Eg Effect of tepid and cold sponging on core body temperature of patient

To evaluate nursing interventionsTo evaluate nursing interventions

Involve a new intervention being tested usually in comparison with standard method of care.

eg A study to assess the effect of music on heartbeat rate and blood pressure of cardiac surgery patients..

To study correlation of To study correlation of physiological functioning in physiological functioning in patients with health problemspatients with health problems

Used for comparison of physiological functioning of patients with several health problems.

TYPESTYPES

In vivoIn vivo Performed directly to measure process

occurring internally with in the organism

In vitroIn vitro Physiological processes are measured and

analyzed outside the organism

ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES

More accurate and less error More objective in nature Provide valid measure for targeted variable Easy access to most of the instruments

DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES

Very expensive Requires significant amount of training and

experience Instruments may cause fear and anxiety Health risk for the subjects

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUEPROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

Are methods for measuring psychological attributes by providing respondents with unstructured stimuli to which they respond

Ex: Value, attitude, personality etc

Q - SortsQ - Sorts

Is a technique in which the participants are provided with pre written cards with words, phrases and statements and asked to arrange these cards in order along with a specific bipolar dimension

ReliabilityReliability

Reliability is the degree of consistency Reliability is the degree of consistency and accuracy with which an instrument and accuracy with which an instrument measures the attribute for which it is designed.measures the attribute for which it is designed.

Factors that depends to measure Factors that depends to measure reliabilityreliability

StabilityStability

The stability aspect of reliability means a The stability aspect of reliability means a research instrument provides same results research instrument provides same results when it is consecutively used for two or more when it is consecutively used for two or more times. Stability is estimated to make sure that times. Stability is estimated to make sure that research instrument is constant in providing research instrument is constant in providing similar results with repeated administration.similar results with repeated administration.

Internal consistencyInternal consistency

Internal consistency ensures that all the subparts Internal consistency ensures that all the subparts of the research instrument measure the same of the research instrument measure the same characteristic. characteristic.

E.g.- A patients satisfaction measurement scale E.g.- A patients satisfaction measurement scale developed to measure the patients satisfaction with developed to measure the patients satisfaction with nursing care must include all the subparts related to nursing care must include all the subparts related to the measurement of satisfaction with nursing care the measurement of satisfaction with nursing care only, including a subpart related to patients only, including a subpart related to patients satisfaction with health care would be inappropriate satisfaction with health care would be inappropriate in the scale.in the scale.

EquivalenceEquivalence

In this aspect of reliability it is done for In this aspect of reliability it is done for testing the reliability of a tool. In this two testing the reliability of a tool. In this two different observers observe a single different observers observe a single phenomenon simultaneously and phenomenon simultaneously and independently.independently.

ValidityValidity

Validity refers to which an instrument Validity refers to which an instrument measures what it is suppose to measuring measures what it is suppose to measuring

Types Of ValidityTypes Of Validity

Face ValidityFace Validity

Overall look of a instrument regarding its Overall look of a instrument regarding its appropriateness to measure a particular appropriateness to measure a particular phenomenon.phenomenon.

In simple words this aspect of validity refers to In simple words this aspect of validity refers to the face value and the outlook of an the face value and the outlook of an instrument.instrument.

Content ValidityContent Validity

It is concerned with scope of coverage of It is concerned with scope of coverage of content area to be measured.content area to be measured.

Criterion validityCriterion validity

In this validity is a relationship between In this validity is a relationship between measurements of the instrument with some measurements of the instrument with some external criteria.external criteria.

Construct validityConstruct validity

Construct validity is the key criterion for Construct validity is the key criterion for assessing the quality of a study. A construct is assessing the quality of a study. A construct is founded in this type of validity.founded in this type of validity.

Construct validity requires an assessment Construct validity requires an assessment of how well an instrument measures a of how well an instrument measures a theoretical construct.theoretical construct.

PILOT STUDYPILOT STUDY

A pilot study is referred to a small scale A pilot study is referred to a small scale preliminary tryout of the method to be used in preliminary tryout of the method to be used in the large research study, which acquaints the the large research study, which acquaints the researcher with problems that can be corrected researcher with problems that can be corrected in proportion for the large research study or is in proportion for the large research study or is done to provide the researcher with an done to provide the researcher with an opportunity to try out the procedure, methods opportunity to try out the procedure, methods and tool of data collection.and tool of data collection.

PurposesPurposes

To study the feasibility and practicability of To study the feasibility and practicability of the research study.the research study.

To assess the availability of the study subjects.To assess the availability of the study subjects. To assess the validity and reliability of the To assess the validity and reliability of the

research tool.research tool. To ensure the appropriateness of methods and To ensure the appropriateness of methods and

procedures of data collection.procedures of data collection.

To understand the study variables and other To understand the study variables and other variables.variables.

To estimate the actual and potential problems To estimate the actual and potential problems researcher may encounter during the actual researcher may encounter during the actual large research study.large research study.

To refine methodologyTo refine methodology To plan for data analysis and interpretation for To plan for data analysis and interpretation for

the final larger research study.the final larger research study.

Bio-physiologic MethodsBio-physiologic Methods most reliable and valid of measurementsmost reliable and valid of measurements Techniques like direct observation, self-report, Techniques like direct observation, self-report,

paper and pencil scales paper and pencil scales specialized equipments and instruments ( details of specialized equipments and instruments ( details of

the exact procedures followed and specific the exact procedures followed and specific description of the equipment used) description of the equipment used)

Comparison of physiologic measures with Comparison of physiologic measures with psychological phenomena possiblepsychological phenomena possible

Risk of false-positive and false-negative test results Risk of false-positive and false-negative test results

Self- reportsSelf- reports Collecting information directly from the Collecting information directly from the

subjects by questioning themsubjects by questioning them

Human beings can communicate what Human beings can communicate what they think, feel or believe through this they think, feel or believe through this method.method.

Efficient in gathering data which are Efficient in gathering data which are

difficult to get by other means difficult to get by other means

Self-report….Self-report….limitationslimitations

concern about the validity and accuracy of concern about the validity and accuracy of the information.the information.

The researcher cannot guarantee that what The researcher cannot guarantee that what people say is exactly what they think or feel people say is exactly what they think or feel especially if the data are embarrassing or on especially if the data are embarrassing or on socially undesirable matters socially undesirable matters

Self-report: techniquesSelf-report: techniques

InterviewInterview

administration of questionnaire or administration of questionnaire or other instruments other instruments

projective techniquesprojective techniques

The most common data collection instrument

SurveyQuestionnaire

Useful to collect quantitative and qualitative

information

Should contain 3 elements:1. Introduction – to explain the objectives

2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions

Types of survey questionaire:

1. Open-ended Questions– Free-response

(Text Open End)

– Fill-in relevant information

2. Close-ended Questions– Dichotomous question

– Multiple-choice

– Cafeteria question

– Rank Order Question

– Contingency question

– Rating Questions

Steps To An Effective Survey QuestionnairePrepare your survey questions

(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)

Select your respondents/samplingRandom/Selected

Administer the survey questionnaire(date, venue, time )

Analyze and interpret data collected

Tabulate data collected (Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )

Characteristics of Research Characteristics of Research InstrumentsInstruments

Validity refers to the degree to which an Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to instrument measures what it is intended to measure.measure.

Validity of an instrument is a determination of Validity of an instrument is a determination of how well it reflects the abstract concept being how well it reflects the abstract concept being examined examined

Validation of a tool is an ongoing process. Validation of a tool is an ongoing process.

Content ValidityContent Validity Content validity is concerned with the Content validity is concerned with the

sampling adequacy of the content area being sampling adequacy of the content area being measured. Content validation requires the measured. Content validation requires the systematic investigation of an instrument to systematic investigation of an instrument to determine whether its items adequately sample determine whether its items adequately sample the domain being measured and whether they the domain being measured and whether they are constructed in the most appropriate form are constructed in the most appropriate form

Criterion related ValidityCriterion related Validity Criterion related validity refers to the degree to which Criterion related validity refers to the degree to which

scores on the test are correlated with some external scores on the test are correlated with some external criterion criterion

concurrentconcurrent validity validity refers to an instrument’s ability to refers to an instrument’s ability to distinguish individuals who differ on a present distinguish individuals who differ on a present criterion and criterion and predictive validitypredictive validity refers to the adequacy refers to the adequacy of an instrument in predicting the performance or of an instrument in predicting the performance or behaviour of individuals on some future criteria. behaviour of individuals on some future criteria.

Construct validityConstruct validity Construct validity requires an assessment of Construct validity requires an assessment of

how well an instrument measures a theoretical how well an instrument measures a theoretical construct. The investigator is concerned with construct. The investigator is concerned with the question: is the construct under the question: is the construct under investigation being adequately measured? investigation being adequately measured?

ReliabilityReliability

the accuracy and consistency of a measuring the accuracy and consistency of a measuring instrument. Reliability means repeatability, instrument. Reliability means repeatability, whether the scale is measuring something in a whether the scale is measuring something in a reproducible fashion. reproducible fashion.

Stability, internal consistency and equivalence Stability, internal consistency and equivalence are the important reliability estimates. The are the important reliability estimates. The following is a brief description of the three.following is a brief description of the three.

The common methods to establish construct The common methods to establish construct validity are: factor analysis, known group validity are: factor analysis, known group technique, and multitrait multimethod technique, and multitrait multimethod approach. approach.