Discuss the various uses of the term cyclone. 2. Compare middle-latitude cyclones, tornadoes, and hurricanes in terms of size and expected wind speeds. 3. Outline and describe the stages in the development of a thunderstorm. 4. List and briefly contrast two or more types of thunderstorms.

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Thunderstorms

• A thunderstorm is simply a storm that generates lightning and thunder.

• It frequently produces gusty winds, heavy rain and hail.

• A thunderstorm may be produced by just a single cumulonimbus cloud and may influence only a small area.

• It may be associated with clusters of cumulonimbus clouds and influence a large area.

Thunderstorms

• Thunderstorms form when warm humid air rises in an unstable environment.

• Various mechanisms can trigger the upward movement of air required to create the cumulonimbus clouds.

• One mechanism, the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface, significantly contributes to the formation of air-mass thunderstorms.

Thunderstorms

• These storms are associated with the scattered puffy cumulonimbus clouds that commonly form within maritime tropical air masses and produce scattered thunderstorms on summer days.

• Such storms are usually short-lived and seldom produce strong winds or hail.

Thunderstorms

• In contrast, there is a second category of thunderstorms that not only benefit from the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface but are associated with the lifting of warm air.

• The kind of lifting that occurs along a weather front or along a mountain slope.

• Moreover, diverging winds aloft frequently contribute to the formation of these storms because they tend to draw air from levels upward beneath them. (Like a stirring up of the air).

Thunderstorms

• Some of the thunderstorms in this second category may produce high winds, damaging hail, flash floods and tornadoes.

• These storms are described as severe!• At any given time, there are an estimated 2000

thunderstorms in progress across the globe.• The greater proportion of these occur in the

tropics where there is plenty of warmth, moisture, and instability much of the time.

Thunderstorms

• Data from space-based optical sensors show the world-wide distribution of lightning.

Thunderstorms

• About 45,000 thunderstorms take place each day around the world, and 16 million occur annually.

• The lightning from these storms strikes the Earth 100 times each second.

• Annually, the United States experiences about 100,000 thunderstorms and millions of lightning strikes.

Thunderstorms

• The following diagram shows that thunderstorms are most frequent in Florida and the eastern Gulf Coast region.

• Here, activity is recorded for between 70 and 100 days each year.

• The region on the east side of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico has the next highest number occurrences of thunderstorms with 60 to 70 occurring annually.

Thunderstorms

• Why do you suppose these two regions have such a high frequency of thunderstorms in comparison to the rest of the country?

Thunderstorms

• Most of the rest of the nation experiences thunderstorms between 30 and 50 per year.

• The western margin of the United States has little thunderstorm activity. (Why?)

• The same is true for the northern tier of the United States and Canada. (Why?)

• Warm, moist, unstable mT air rarely penetrates these regions.

Air Mass Thunderstorms

• In the United States, air mass thunderstorms frequently occur in maritime tropical (mT) air that moves northward from the Gulf of Mexico.

• These warm and humid air masses contain abundant moisture in their lower levels and can be rendered unstable when heated from below or lifted along a front.

Air Mass Thunderstorms

• Because mT air becomes most unstable in spring (like now) and summer as well when it is warmed from below by the heated land surface.

• It is during these seasons that air-mass thunderstorms are most frequent.

• They occur most often in the mid-afternoon when the surface temperatures are highest.

Air Mass Thunderstorms

• Because local differences in surface heating aid in the growth of air-mass thunderstorms, they generally occur as scattered, isolated cells instead of being organized in relatively narrow bands or other configurations.

Stages of Development

• The Thunderstorm Project– Involved the use of radar, aircraft, radiosondes and

an extensive network of surface instruments.– Produced a three staged model of the life cycle of

a thunderstorm.

Stages of Development

• Cumulus Stage– Air mass thunderstorms are a product of uneven

heating of the Earth’s surface.– Initial cumulus development is important

because it moves water vapor from the surface to greater heights.

– Ultimately, the air becomes sufficiently humid that newly forming clouds do not evaporate but instead continue to grow vertically.

Stages of Development

• The development of the cumulonimbus tower requires a continuous supply of warm, moist air.

• Release of latent heat allows each new surge of warm air to rise higher than the last.

• This adds to the height of the cloud.• This stage, the cumulus stage, is dominated by

updrafts.

Stages of Development

• Once clouds pass beyond the freezing level, the Bergeron Process begins producing precipitation.

• Eventually the accumulation of precipitation in the cloud is too great for the updrafts to support.

• The falling precipitation causes drag on the air and initiates a downdraft.

Stages of Development

• The creation of the downdraft is further aided by the influx of cool, dry air surrounding the cloud a process called entrainment.

• This process intensifies the downdraft because the air added during entrainment is cool and therefore (WHAT????)

• Possibly of greater importance, it is dry.• This causes some of the falling precipitation to

evaporate thereby cooling the air within the downdraft.

The Mature Stage

• As the downdraft leaves the base of the cloud, precipitation is released marking the beginning of the cloud’s mature stage.

• At the surface, the cool downdraft spreads laterally and can be felt before the precipitation actually reaches the ground.

• We spoke about this last week.• Sharp, cool gusts of wind are indicative of

downdrafts aloft.

The Mature Stage

• During the mature stage, downdrafts and updrafts exist in the cloud side by side.

• When the cloud grows to the top of the unstable region, often located at the base of the stratosphere, the updrafts spread laterally and produce the characteristic anvil top (Yuka!)

• Ice laden cirrus clouds make up the top and are spread downwind by strong winds aloft.

Anvil Cloud

The Mature Stage

• This is the most active stage of the thunderstorm

• Gusty winds, lighting, heavy precipitation and sometimes small hail are experienced.

Dissipating Stage

• Once the downdrafts occur, the vacating air and precipitation encouragement more entrainment of the cool, dry air surrounding the cell.

• Eventually, the downdrafts dominate throughout the cloud and initiate the dissipating stage.

• The cooling effect of falling precipitation and the influx of colder air aloft mark the end of the thunderstorm activity.

Dissipating Stage

• Without a supply of moisture from the updrafts, the cloud soon evaporates.

• Only about 20% of the moisture that condenses in an air-mass thunderstorm actually leaves the cloud as precipitation.

• The remaining 80% evaporates back into the atmosphere.

Thunderstorms

• When you view a thunderstorm, you may notice that the cumulonimbus cloud consists of several towers.

• Each tower may represent a separate, individual cell that is in a somewhat different part of its life cycle.

Thunderstorm Stages

• The cumulus stage– Updrafts dominate throughout the cloud.– Growth from a cumulus to a cumulonimbus cloud

begins.• Mature Stage– The most intense phase. Heavy rain and possibly

small hail. Downdrafts are side by side with updrafts.

Thunderstorm Stages

• Dissipating Stage– Dominated by downdrafts and entrainment,

causing evaporation of the structure.

Occurrences

• Mountainous regions, such as the Rockies in the west and the Appalachians in the east experience more air mass thunderstorms than the Great Plains do.

• The air near the top of the mountain is heated more intensely than the air at the same elevation over the lowlands.

• A general upslope movement develops over the daytime that can generate thunderstorm cells.

Occurrences

• These cells may remain almost stationary above the slopes below.

• Although the growth of thunderstorms is aided by high surface temperatures, many thunderstorms are not generated solely by surface heating.

• For example, many of Florida’s thunderstorms are triggered by the convergence of sea-to-land airflow.

Occurrences

• Many thunderstorms that form over the eastern two-thirds of the United States occur as part of a general convergence and frontal wedging that accompany passing mid-latitude cyclones.

• Near the equator, thunderstorms commonly form in association with the convergence along the equatorial low – this is also called the inter-tropical convergence zone.

• Most of these thunderstorms are not severe and their life cycles are like that of the three stage model we just described.

Severe Thunderstorms

• Capable of producing heavy downpours and flash floods.

• Strong, gusty, straight-line winds, large hail, frequent lightning, and perhaps tornadoes.

• Must be declared by the National Weather Service

Severe Thunderstorms

• Must have winds in excess of 93 kilometers (58 miles) per hour.

• OR produce hailstones with diameters larger than 1.9 centimeters (.75 inches).

• OR generate a tornado.• Of the estimated 100,000 thunderstorms that

occur annually in the United States, approximately 10 percent (10,000) storms reach severe status.

Severe Thunderstorms

• Remember, air mass thunderstorms are localized.

• Relatively short lived and they dissipate after a brief, well-defined life cycle.

• As you have seen, they extinguish themselves once the downdrafts cut off the moisture supply necessary to maintain the storm.

• For this reason, they seldom produce severe weather.

Severe Thunderstorms

• By contrast, other thunderstorms (the kind that is not considered air-mass) do not dissipate quickly and may remain active for several hours.

• Some of these larger storms tender to live longer and reach severe status.

Severe Thunderstorms

• Why do some thunderstorms exist for hours?• A key factor is the existence of strong vertical

wind shear – changes in wind direction and/or speed at different heights.

• When these conditions exist, the updrafts that provide the storm with moisture do not remain vertical, but become tilted.

Severe Thunderstorms

• Because of this, the precipitation that forms high in the upper parts of the cloud falls into the downdraft rather than the updraft as it does in air-mass thunderstorms.

• This allows the updraft to maintain its strength and continue to build upward.

• Sometimes the updrafts are sufficiently strong that the cloud top is able to push its way into the stable lower stratosphere.

Severe Thunderstorms

• This situation is called overshooting.• Beneath the cumulonimbus tower where

downdrafts reach the surface, the more dense, cooler air spreads out across the ground.

• The leading edge of this cooler air acts like a wedge, and this forces warm, moist air into the thunderstorm.

• This further feeds the thunderstorm.

Severe Thunderstorms

Severe Thunderstorms

• In the previous diagram, you can see that the outflowing cool air of the downdraft acts as a “mini cold front” as it advances into the warmer surrounding air.

• This outflow boundary is known as a gust front.• As the gust front moves across the ground, the

very turbulent air sometimes picks up loose dust and soil, making the advancing boundary visible.

Severe Thunderstorms

• Frequently, a roll cloud may form as warm air is lifted along the leading edge of the gust front.

• The advance of the gust front can provide the lifting needed for the formation of new thunderstorms many kilometers away from the initial cumulonimbus clouds.

Thunderstorm (Roll Cloud)

Thunderstorm (Roll Cloud)

Supercell Thunderstorms

• Some of the most dangerous weather known comes as a result of these storms. Few weather phenomena are as awesome.

• An estimated 2000 to 3000 supercell thunderstorms occur annually in the United States.

• They represent just a small fraction of all thunderstorms, but are responsible for a disproportionate share of the deaths, injuries and property damage associated with severe weather.

Supercell Thunderstorms

• Less than half of all supercell thunderstorms produce tornadoes, yet virtually all of the strongest and most violent tornadoes are spawned by supercells.

• A supercell consists of a single, very powerful cell that at times can extend to heights of 20 kilometers (65,000 feet) and persist for many hours.

• These massive clouds have diameters ranging between about 20 and 50 kilometers (12 and 30 miles).

Supercell Thunderstorms

• Despite the single cell structure of supercells, these storms are extremely complex.

• Vertical wind profiles may cause the updraft to rotate.

• This could occur if the surface flow is from the south or southeast and the winds aloft increase in speed and become more westerly with height.

Supercell Thunderstorms

• If a thunderstorm develops in such a wind environment, the updraft is made to rotate.

• It is within this column of cyclonically rotating air, called a mesocyclone, that tornadoes often form.