Post on 02-Jan-2016
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Chapter 5
Theoretical Underpinnings for PR
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
PR Theory
• Borrowed from– Organizational and management theory– Political theory– Communication theory– Persuasion theory
• All have roots in sociology and psychology with some connection to math, biology and physics
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Four Sociological Theories
• Help us understand how people respond to mass and specialized communication– Structural functionalism– Evolutionary perspective– Social conflict – Symbolic interactionism
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Five Psychological Approaches
• Often used in studies on the effects of mass communication– Neurobiological– Comparative– Behavioral– Psychoanalytic – Cognitive
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Two Persuasion Models
• Help us to understand how people interpret messages– Sociocultural paradigm– Psychodynamic
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Organizational Theory
• Based on general systems theory: parts of system are interrelated function as a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts
• Theoretical concept can be found in works of Hegel
• Cultural approach looks at development, impact of organization’s culture
• Critical approach examines sources of power and control in an organization
• Postmodern approach focuses on post 1960s
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Communication and Behavioral Theory
• Behavioral models, theories replacing communication models and theories as core underpinning of PR
• Behavioral models suggest PR is social science
• Behavioral models suggest PR communication must focus on direct, personal and not mass appeals
• Behavioral models shift objective and focus away from communication model’s emphasis on creating or retaining awareness to creating and retaining a behavioral response
• Behavioral models really asymmetrical even though PR “best practices” are symmetrical
Symmetrical Behavioral Model
• Gauge existing levels of awareness• Investigate responses in attempt to create, raise
or sustain awareness• Measure latent readiness to act• Monitor responses to triggering event• Evaluate behavior to determine why particular
action was taken
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Winning People Over
• Three basic ways to get people to do what you want:– Power: use authority, implied or overt
threat of compulsion– Patronage: as crude as bribery, as
delicate as celebrity endorsement– Persuasion: using communication to win
people over
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Steps in Persuasion Process
• Presenting• Attending• Comprehending• Yielding• Retaining • Acting
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
PR and Persuasion
• Frequently used to change opinions• Most critical factor in opinion change is
information or the lack thereof• Critical how information is presented or
withheld• Access to information and selective use of it
combines tools of power and persuasion
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Personal Persuaders
• Organizations and significant others who exercise leverage over others
• Involves recognition and acceptance of their authority
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Impersonal Persuaders
• Less potent and influential than personal persuaders
• Mass media editorials and advertisements• Information disseminated by educational
and government institutions• Content of entertainment
Framing
• Sometimes attributed to art• Definitions abound• Agreement focuses on three elements: selection,
emphasis, connection of information to lead readers/viewers to a particular conclusion
• PR practitioners frame issues
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Opinion Makers and News Managers
• May be someone who creates an event that becomes news when it happens and is covered
• May be someone who focuses media attention on an event that might be otherwise overlooked
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Propaganda and Persuasion Appeals
• Name calling• Glittering generalities• Transfer• Testimonials• Plain folks• Bandwagon• Card stacking• Emotional stereotypes• Illicit silence• Subversive rhetoric
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Propaganda
• Not necessarily negative• Nothing inherent about propaganda that
prevents it from being used to change attitudes and behavior constructively
• Propagandists try to teach people what to think, while educators try to teach people how to think
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cantril’s Laws
• Events affect opinion• Demands for action are a common
response once opinion is formed• People will become involved out of self
interest• People seek leaders for issues around
which opinion develops• Reliability is difficult to assess
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cialdini’s Self-Persuasion Elements
• Consistency: once they commit to a position, people are more likely to perform behaviors consistent with that position– Draws on Festinger’s theory of cognitive
dissonance– Draws on Rokeach’s theory of beliefs, attitudes
and values• Reciprocity: people are influenced by a sense that
they “owe” or are beholden to others• Social validation: people are more influenced to
behave in a certain way
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cialdini’s Self-Persuasion Elements (cont.)
• Authority: people are more willing to follow the suggestions of someone considered a legitimate authority
• Scarcity: people want items and opportunities that are viewed as scarce or dwindling
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Earl Newsom’s Persuasion Principles
• Identification: people will relate to an idea or opinion if they see it having a direct effect on them
• Suggestion of action: people will respond to ideas that are accompanied by a proposed action by the sponsor of the idea or if the recipients themselves propose it
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Earl Newsom’s Persuasion Principles (cont.)
• Familiarity and trust: people are unwilling to accept ideas from sources if they don’t trust or know them
• Clarity: people need to clearly understand the meaning of an idea before they can be persuaded to accept it
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Opinion Leaders
• Vocal activists• Opinion leaders, both mass media and
individuals• Power leaders: government officials,
legislators, others who have power to take actions
• Increasingly it is the power leaders who have the most influence
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Persuasion Strategies
• Stimulus-response• Cognitive• Motivational• Social appeal• Personality appeal
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Impediments to Persuasion
• Cognitive dissonance could occur: sometimes less social persuasion produces more attitude change because people feel they have freely chosen a particular opinion or behavior
• Truth is personal: much “truth” is circumstantial, subjective so the same “truth” may be interpreted differently by different individuals
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories
• Lasswell’s Theory: who says what in which channels to whom with what effect– Ignores feedback
• Source is the “who”– Credibility, expertise generally important– People tend to believe sources that are like
them or who they want to be like– People also tend to seek authority in sources– Source characteristics can be negated if a
message lacks quality, plausibility
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Messages are the “what”– The content has consequences– So does the way it is presented (telling both sides,
linking the familiar to the unfamiliar)– Repetition generally increases learning– Always tell people what they are expected to think
or do– Present something of value to the public and be
compatible with the public’s mindset– Each message needs a purpose
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
– Each message should appeal to some need or interest in the audience such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:• physical needs• safety• love• self-esteem• self-actualization
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
– Each message needs texture: color, design, movement, sound that appeal to the intended audience
– Message language must mean the same thing to the audience as it does to the source and must have maximum impact on the viewer or listener: no jargon, maximum clarity, maximum emotional impact
– Messages are increasingly globally accessible, cultural considerations, different values are increasingly important
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Media are the channels– Complexity of message influences choice: print handles
complexity best, video best for simple messages– Some messages involve their audiences more: computers
interactively involve, TV passively involves– Media orientation of public most critical factor to consider
in choosing a channel: uses and gratifications research essential
– Knowing not just who receives the channel but who pays attention to it and remembers it is important
– Knowing which channels are considered credible also should be a factor in choosing the right medium
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Receivers are the “to whom”– Sometimes messages must be adjusted to minimize
differences between the source and receivers– If messages are “tuned out” they are not really received– Messages must be encoded into something personally
meaningful to an intended receiver– Distortions, distractions, noise must be taken into account– Symbols must be chosen carefully to be sure they have
intended meaning to the receivers– Receiver stereotypes must be taken into account both in
terms of how they influence encoding and decoding of messages
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)• Response to a message is the “with what effect”
– How people respond is a function of anticipation, expectations and assumptions
– Comprehension and acceptance of messages must occur before a receiver can fashion a response
– Some receivers will respond to group dynamics in fashioning their response
– Others will strive to reduce discrepancies or cognitive dissonance
– Some people take behavior cues from external causes, while others respond to internal causes
– All opinions, attitudes and actions are affected by family, friends, informal work groups and formal groups, so no message “works” in isolation from these influences
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Models of Information Processing
• Information processing is critical in communication: models that predict behavior successfully are especially useful in a public relations communications campaign
• Grunig’s model of publics and how they seek and process information is significant
• Publics range from active to inactive, and their behavior ranges from seeking information to just processing it
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Models of Information Processing (cont.)
• Individuals are more likely to seek and process information if they think it will help them solve a problem and if they are personally involved
• Those who are constrained are less likely to either seek or process information
This is PR 11th Edition Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Diffusion Process
• Awareness (presenting)• Information( attending)• Evaluation (comprehending)• Trial (yielding)• Adoption (retaining)• Reinforcement ( retaining)