Chapter 11

Thinking and Language

Section 1

Thinking and Problem Solving

Thinking

• Changing and reorganization of the information stored in memory to create new information

• Copernicus– How do we think?– How do we create ideas

Units of Thought

• Image

• Symbol

• Concept

• Prototype

• Rule

Image

• A visual, mental representation of an event or object

• Imagery is an effective way of thinking about concepts

• Shepard & Metzler (Page 296)

Symbol

• An abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality

• An image represents a specific sight or sound, but a symbol may have a number of meanings

• Examples:– Numbers, letters, punctuation marks (have no

concrete existence)

Concept

• A label for a class of objects or events that have at least one attribute in common.

• Enables us to chunk large amounts of information

Prototype

• A representative example of a concept.

• The prototype you picture may not be an example you have experienced

• Is an example that has most of the characteristics of the particular concept

Rule

• A statement of relation between concepts.

• Examples:– A person cannot be in two places at one time– Mass remains constant despite changes in

appearance

Kinds of Thinking

• Directed or convergent thinking– Deliberate or purposeful– Is a systematic and logical attempt to reach a

specific goal or answer– Example:

• Math problems

Kinds of Thinking

• Non-directed or divergent thinking– A free flow of thoughts with no particular plan– Usually takes place when relaxing– Artists best art and creative ideas emerge

from this type of thinking

Kinds of Thinking

• Metacognition– Thinking about thinking– Thinking about strategies may cause you to

think about other strategies

Strategies

• Problem solving depends on the use of strategies, or specific methods for approaching

• Break down complex problems into sub goals or intermediate steps

• You may work backward from the goal you have set

Strategies

• May require you to examine various ways of reaching a desired goal

• Most of us analyze the problem to see if it resembles a situation we have experienced in the past

• The more unusual the problem, the more difficult to devise a strategy for dealing with it

Problem Solving Strategy

• Algorithm- a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem– Math & scientific formulas

• Heuristics- are experimental strategies, or rules of thumb, that simplify a problem, allowing one to solve problems quickly and easily

Heuristics

• Wheel of Fortune– Able to use previous knowledge of prefixes,

suffixes, and other to assist in solving puzzles

• Your advice might include what has worked for you in the past

Obstacles to Problem Solving

• Mental set- a habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving

• Functional fixedness- the inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects

Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in

a particular way especially a way that has been

successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things

only in terms of their usual functions

impediment to problem solving

Obstacles to Problem Solving

The Matchstick Problem

How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

The Matchstick Problem

Solution to the matchstick problem

The Three-Jugs Problem

Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

The Three-Jugs Problem

Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.

b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

The Candle-Mounting Problem

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

The Candle-Mounting Problem

Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

Creativity

• The capacity to use information and/or abilities in new and original ways– Is a mystery to psychologists

• Characteristics of Creative Thinking– Flexibility– Recombination– insight

Flexibility

• The ability to overcome rigidity, to remain open to alternate strategies

• Inflexible and rigid thinking leads to unoriginal or no solutions

Recombination

• Rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution

• Many creative people say that “no creative poem or invention has ever came from someone who has not spent years studying his or her subject

Insight

• The apparent sudden realization of the solution to a problem

• Known as the “aha” experience

• Wolfgang Kohler (1976) Chimpanzee and banana experiement

Section 2

Language

Language

• Is the expression of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules– Communicates facts and ideas– Consists of three elements

• Phonemes• Morphemes• Syntax

Phoneme

• An individual sound that is a basic structural element of language

• English language– Has 43 sounds

• Some languages have as few as 15 sounds and as many as 85 sounds

Morphemes

• The smallest unit of meaning in a given language

• may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

• Grammar- a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Language

• Syntax- language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences

• Semantics- the study of meaning in a language

Language Development

• B.F. Skinner- believed children learned language as a result of operant conditioning

• Critics of Skinner– Think children understand language before

they speak and before they receive reinforcement

Language Development

• Some psychologists argue that children learn language through observation, explanation, and imitation

• Noam Chomsky– Believed reinforcement and imitation

contribute, but does not believe that all the complex rules of language could be learned this way

Language Babbling Stage

beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which

the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during

which a child speaks mostly in single words

Language

Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during

which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child

speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words

Language

Summary of Language Development

Month(approximate)

Stage

4

10

12

24

24+

Babbles many speech sounds.

Babbling reveals households language.

One-word stage.

Two-world, telegraphic speech.

Language develops rapidly intocomplete sentences.

Benjamin Whorf

• Linguistic relativity– Refers to the idea that language influences

thoughts

• Certain words may create stereotypes among gender– “she” usually refers to secretaries, teachers,

and nurses– “he” usually refers to doctor, engineers, and

presidents of companies