Thinking and Thinking and LanguageLanguage

Chapter 8Chapter 81

LanguageLanguage

Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning

to ourselves and others.

2Language transmits culture.

M. &

E. B

ernheim/ W

oodfin Cam

p & A

ssociates

Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

Children learn their native languages

much before learning to add 2+2.

We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500

words a year, amassing 60,000

words by the time we graduate from high

school.3

Tim

e Life Pictures/ G

etty Images

When do we learn language?When do we learn language?

Babbling Stage: Beginning at 4

months, the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah-goo. Babbling is

not imitation of adult speech.

4

When do we learn language?When do we learn language?

5

One-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him. The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there.

Gwen “Eat- Ot” (about 16 months old)Gwen practices lettersGwennie wanna cracker

When do we learn language?When do we learn language?

Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. This form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.

Gwen starting to countGwen sings Old MacDonaldGwen names dinosaurs

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When do we learn When do we learn language?language?

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Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech, children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.

You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.

Gwen reads Animal SerenadeGwen sings We Wish You a Merry Christmas

OverregularizationOverregularizationApplying regular rules to all

situationsI “goed” to the store.Momma “taked” the clothes out

of the dryer.

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When do we learn language?When do we learn language?

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Explaining Language Explaining Language DevelopmentDevelopment

1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.

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Explaining Language Explaining Language DevelopmentDevelopment

2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

Language Acquisition Device

3. Interactionist ◦Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories

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Theories of Language Theories of Language AcquisitionAcquisitionBehaviorist

◦Skinner learning of specific verbal responses

Nativist◦Chomsky

learning the rules of language Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Interactionist ◦Cognitive, social communication, and

emergentist theories

Thinking and Thinking and LanguageLanguage

Chapter 8 (Part 2)Chapter 8 (Part 2)13

Explaining Language Explaining Language DevelopmentDevelopment

Childhood is a critical period for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language.

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Genes, Brain, & LanguageGenes, Brain, & Language

Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the

brain.

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Critical PeriodCritical PeriodLearning new languages gets harder

with age.

The Case of Genie 16

The Case of GenieThe Case of GenieDescribe what happened to

“Genie”◦Include background information◦How was her brain development

affected?◦What became of Genie?◦What have we learned about language

development from this case?

Write at least ½ a page; due today

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Thinking & LanguageThinking & LanguageLanguage and thinking intricately

intertwine.

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Rubber B

all/ Alm

ay

Language Influences Language Influences ThinkingThinking

Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think. For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.“Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis”

(Eskimo words for snow)

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Language Influences Language Influences ThinkingThinking

When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about these objects

more clearly and remember them. It is easier to think about two colors with two different names (A) than colors with the

same name (B) (Özgen, 2004).

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New Words in 2013…New Words in 2013…babymoonblondiebuzzworthycake popchandelier earri

ngdigital detoxemojifauxhawkflatformfood babygeek chic

guachackerspaceme timepixie cutselfiespace tourismstreet foodtwerkunlike

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Word PowerWord Power

-Increasing word power pays its dividends. It helps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual children to inhibit one language while using another. -Research is divided and incomplete about bilingualism-Acculturation

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Thinking in ImagesThinking in Images

To a large extent thinking is language-based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves.

However, we also think in images.

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2. When we are riding our bicycle.

1. When we open the hot water tap.

We don’t think in words, when:

Images and BrainImages and Brain

Imagining a physical activity activates the same brain regions as when actually

performing the activity.

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Jean Duffy D

ecety, Septem

ber 2003

Language and ThinkingLanguage and ThinkingTraffic runs both ways between language

and thinking.

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Animal Thinking & LanguageAnimal Thinking & Language

Do animals have a language?

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Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dancemoves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.

Do Animals Think?Do Animals Think?

Common cognitive skills in humans and apes

include the following:

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1. Concept Formation

2. Insight3. Problem Solving4. Culture

African grey parrot sorts redblocks from green balls.

William

Munoz

InsightInsight

Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems.

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Sultan uses sticks to get food.

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

Apes are, much like us, shaped by reinforcement when solving

problems.

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Chimpanzee fishing for ants.

Courtesy of Jennifer B

yrne, c/o Richard B

yrne, D

epartment of P

sychology, University of S

t. Andrew

s, Scotland

Animal CultureAnimal Culture

Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.

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Dolphins using sponges asforging tools.

Chimpanzee mother using andteaching a young how to use

a stone hammer.

Copyright A

manda K

Coakes

Michael N

ichols/ National G

eographic Society

Do Animals Exhibit Do Animals Exhibit Language?Language?There is no doubt that animals communicate.

Vervet monkeys, whales and even

honey bees communicate with members of their species and other

species.(Einstein the Parrot)

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Rico (collie) has a200-word vocabulary

Copyright B

aus/ Kreslow

ski

The Case of ApesThe Case of Apes

Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe (3:20), a chimp, who

learned 181 signs by the age of 32.

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Gestured CommunicationGestured Communication

Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is

possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.

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Sign LanguageSign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees

a form of communication.

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When asked, this chimpanzee usesa sign to say it is a baby.

Paul Fusco/ Magnum

Photos

Syntax ComprehensionSyntax Comprehension

Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps

semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi (shown below)

developed vocabulary for hundreds of words and phrases.

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Copyright of G

reat Ape T

rust of Iowa

But Can Apes Really Talk?But Can Apes Really Talk?1. Apes acquire their limited vocabularies

with a great deal of difficulty, unlike children who develop vocabularies at amazing rates.

2. Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key receives a reward. However, pigeons have not learned a language.

3. Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack human syntax.

4. Presented with ambiguous information, people tend to see what they want to see (perceptual set).

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Language: Turning Thoughts Language: Turning Thoughts into Wordsinto WordsProperties of Language (IMPORTANT!!!)

◦Symbolic--spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events, and ideas.

◦Semantic--meaningful

◦Generative--a limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite number of ways to generate novel messages

◦Structured--there are rules that govern arrangement of words into phrases and sentences.

The Hierarchical Structure of The Hierarchical Structure of LanguageLanguage

Phonemes = smallest speech units◦100 possible, English – about 40

Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning◦50,000 in English, root words, prefixes,

suffixesSemantics = meaning of words and

word combinations◦Objects and actions to which words refer

Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences◦Different rules for different languages

The handsome soccer player The handsome soccer player scored a goal.scored a goal.1) Phoneme: “goal” has 3

phonemes—g, o, l2) Morpheme: “player” has 2

morphemes—play and er3) Semantics: the meaning of the

words & sentences4) Syntax: “handsome” is an

adjective that goes before the noun it describes, for ex.

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ThinkingThinking

Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing,

understanding, remembering, and communicating.

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Cognitive PsychologistsCognitive Psychologists

Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive

psychologists study these in great detail.

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1. Concepts2. Problem solving3. Decision making4. Judgment

formation

ConceptsConcepts

The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but

their common features define the concept of a chair.

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Category HierarchiesCategory HierarchiesWe organize concepts into category hierarchies.

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Courtesy of C

hristine Brune

Development of ConceptsDevelopment of Concepts

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We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental

images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a

bird, but a penguin is not.

Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)

Daniel J. C

ox/ Getty Im

ages

J. Messerschm

idt/ The Picture C

ube

Problem SolvingProblem SolvingProblem solving strategies

include:

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1.Trial and Error2.Algorithms3.Heuristics4. Insight

Trial & ErrorTrial & ErrorTrying possible solutions and throwing out ones that don’t work until you find one that does work

Random/haphazard

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AlgorithmsAlgorithms

Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution.

Computers use algorithms. (more systematic and less random)

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S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,200 possibilities.

Heuristics Heuristics (guiding principle/rule of (guiding principle/rule of thumb)thumb)

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Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

B2M

Productions/D

igital Version/G

etty Images

HeuristicsHeuristics

Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.

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S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y

Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.

InsightInsight

Insight involves a sudden novel

realization of a solution to a

problem. Humans and animals have

insight.

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Grande using boxes toobtain food

InsightInsightBrain imaging and EEG

studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience),

it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-

Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution

and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.

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From M

ark Jung-Beekm

an, Northw

estern U

niversity and John Kounios, D

rexel University

Obstacles in Solving Obstacles in Solving ProblemsProblemsConfirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.

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FixationFixation

Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes

problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.

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The Matchstick Problem: How

would you arrange six matches to form

four equilateral triangles?

From

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

opyright © 1963 by

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

Mental SetMental Setthe tendency to approach

situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past

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Candle-Mounting ProblemCandle-Mounting Problem

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

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From

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

opyright © 1963 by

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

Making Decision & Forming Making Decision & Forming JudgmentsJudgments

Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.

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Using and Misusing HeuristicsUsing and Misusing HeuristicsTwo kinds of heuristics, representative

heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists.

60Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman

Courtesy of G

reymeyer A

ward, U

niversity of L

ouisville and the Tversky fam

ily

Courtesy of G

reymeyer A

ward, U

niversity of L

ouisville and Daniel K

ahneman

Representativeness HeuristicRepresentativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or

match, a particular prototype.

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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than

such professors.

If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?

An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?

Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic-basing the estimated probability of an event on -basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant examples come to the ease with which relevant examples come to mindmind

Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?Whatever increases the ease of retrieving

information increases its perceived availability.

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How is retrieval facilitated?

1. How recently we have heard about the event.

2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.

Gambler’s FallacyGambler’s FallacyThe false belief that

the probability of an event in a random sequence is dependent on preceding events, its probability increasing with each successive occasion on which it fails to occur

Umm…the longer something doesn’t happen, the more probable it will occur—false!

Family with 5 boys—mom is pregnant again—they think for sure it will be a girl this time—false!

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Conjunction FallacyConjunction FallacyA widespread error

of judgment according to which a combination of 2 or more attributes is judged to be more probable or likely than either attribute on its own

Related to representativeness heuristic

Tattooed biker

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OverconfidenceOverconfidence

Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures

increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of

our beliefs and judgments.

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In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be

confident about their decisions on a stock.

Exaggerated FearExaggerated Fear

The opposite of having overconfidence

is having an exaggerated fear about what may

happen. Such fears may be unfounded.

The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.

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AP

/ Wide W

orld Photos

The Effects of FramingThe Effects of Framing

Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon

how an issue is framed.

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Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

The Belief Perseverance The Belief Perseverance PhenomenonPhenomenon

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary

evidence.

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If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous

actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

Convergent ThinkingConvergent ThinkingA person attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem

Narrowing down choices to one

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Divergent ThinkingDivergent Thinkinga person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem.

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