In the Name of Allah

The Study Of LanguageWord Formation

Saeed Jafari

Researcher on LinguisticsB.A Teaching English as a Foreign Language

Etymology

Etymology is the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time. By an extension, the term "the etymology of [a word]" means the origin of the particular word.

Greek and Latin have had the biggest influence on English

This influence started thousands of years ago…

Where do the words we use come from?

• English is a blend of words from many other languages

• These words made their way into the English language in many ways

o Occupation by other countries/cultureso English occupation of other countries/cultureso Brought by immigrantso Cultural trends and fashions

The English language is always changing!

country name, late 14c., from Medieval Latin Turchia, from Turcus (see Turk) + -ia

guinea fowl

How Latin words got into English Language ?

Latin• The Roman Empire expanded into Britain, bringing Latin

Latin•Latin words found their way into the Anglo-Saxon language of the people in Ancient Britain

their way into the Anglo-Saxon language of the people in people in Ancient Britain

Latin word “stratum” means “layered road”

“Stratum” became “straets” in Anglo-

Saxon

Now called “streets” in

modern English

Miles

Miles of streets and roads were

created

Mile is from the Latin word mille, which

means 1,000 The Roman

mile was measured as 1,000 paces

Coinage is the word formation process in which a new word is created either deliberately or accidentally without using the other word formation processes and often from seemingly nothing.

Sources of coined words:

1. Trade names of commercial products that become general terms. 

e.g. Google, ebay

2. New words based on the name of a person or a place.

e.g. Volt, Watt, jeans, sandwich, hoover etc.

Coinage

Selfie

a photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a

smartphone or webcam and uploaded to a social media website.

Space Tourism

the practice of travelling into space for recreational purposes

Hackerspace

a place in which people with an interest in computing or technology can gather to work on projects while sharing

ideas, equipment, and knowledge

Street Food

prepared or cooked food sold by vendors in a street or other public

location for immediate consumption

Unlike

withdraw one’s liking or approval of (a web page or posting on a social

media website that one has previously liked)

 

FOMO

FIL

LDR

A / W

anxiety that an exciting or interesting event may currently be happening

elsewhere, often aroused by posts seen on a social media

website

a person’s father-in-law (see also MIL, BIL, SIL).

me time, n. (informal): time spent relaxing on one’s own as opposed to working or doing things for others, seen as an

opportunity to reduce stress or restore energy.

(denoting or relating to fashion designed for the

autumn and winter seasons of a particular year). (See also

S/S)

BorrowingBorrowing is the process whereby new words are formed by adopting words from other languages together with the concepts or ideas they stand for (cf. Brun, 1983; Pei 1966). E.g., tango, mango, taco, burrito from Spanish; fiancé, very (adapted from Old French verai), garage from French; pizza, mafia from Italian so on. Usually, the pro-nunciation and morphology of the borrowings ( borrowed terms or loanwords ) are adapted to the phonology and morphology of the host language (i.e., the language which adopts the terms); e.g., guerrilla \g´"rIl´\ (English), \ge" r@ija\ (Spanish); banana \b´"nœn´\ (English), \ba"nana\ (Spanish); mango (sing), mangoes (pl.) (English), mangos (Spanish).

Latin words borrowed before the settlement in England

Latin words adopted during the Anglo-Saxon period

14th and 15th century 14th and 15th century

ENGLISH WORDS BORROWED FROM ITALIANItalian English Meaning

Sonetto Sonnet  a poem, properly expressive of a    single, complete thought, idea, or sentiment, of 14   lines.

Novella Novel  a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length and complexity, portraying characters 

Scenario  Scenario  scene

Balcone Balcony a platform projecting from the wall of a building.

Studio  Studio  room for study

Banca  Bank  counter where money-changers transacted their business.

Banca rotta  Bankrupt bank broken

Salami , plural of Salame Salami  spiced pork sausage

Broccoli Broccoli Vegetable

casino casino

Examples by word class

Modifier Head Compound

noun noun football

adjective noun blackboard

verb noun breakwater

preposition noun underworld

noun adjective snowwhite

adjective adjective blue-green

verb adjective tumbledown

preposition adjective over-ripe

noun verb browbeat

adjective verb highlight

verb verb freeze-dry

preposition verb undercut

noun preposition love-in

adverb preposition forthwith

verb preposition takeout

preposition preposition without

Many of our words come from our close neighbours the French

ChequeChefArtistBureauCaféGallopNatureRestaurantCabinetJustice and so on

Compounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine into a single new word. Compound words may be written as one word or as two words joined with a hyphen. For example:

noun-noun compound: note + book → notebook

adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry

verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom

noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed

verb-verb compound: stir + fry → stir-fry

adjective-verb compound: high + light → highlight

Compounding

Examples by word classModifier Head Compound

noun noun footballadjective noun blackboardverb noun breakwaterpreposition noun underworldnoun adjective snowwhiteadjective adjective blue-greenverb adjective tumbledownpreposition adjective over-ripe

Examples by word class

Modifier Head Compound

noun noun football

adjective noun blackboard

verb noun breakwater

preposition noun underworld

noun adjective snowwhite

adjective adjective blue-green

verb adjective tumbledown

preposition adjective over-ripe

noun verb browbeat

adjective verb highlight

verb verb freeze-dry

preposition verb undercut

noun preposition love-in

adverb preposition forthwith

verb preposition takeout

preposition preposition without

English compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the word classes or the semantic relationship of their components

Similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted. Blends are the compression of two words into one

Examples:

Motor + hotel  MotelBreakfast + lunch  BrunchWireless + Fidelity  Wi-Fi * They will obey the phonological rules of the languagesmoke + fog ≠ sfog

Blending

Some blending patterns become so common that they 

seem to create new morphemes

1. Watergate

2. Nannygate

3. Monicagate

4. -gate looks like a suffix meaning ‘scandal’

Blends

television marathon telethon

breakfast lunch brunch

motor hotel motel

frozen cappacino frappacino

situation comedy sitcom

cranberry martini crantini

Blends

ClipingClipping means cutting Off the beginning or the end of a word or both Leaving a part to stand for The whole ;lab , Dorm , Prof , exam

The back-clipped words are those words that lose their forepart , like plane and phone.

*The converse of backformation

*Clipping does not assume a rule but deletes material while obeying the phonological rules of the language

Abbreviations (Clipping)

• Definition: A word which is clipped• Examples:

– Facsimile   fax– Hamburger   burger  Gasoline   Advertisement     Omnibus   

GasAdBus

Clipping

professor profdisrespect diss

gymnasium gymmathematic

s mathmemorandu

m memoattitude tude

Backformation

A new word is created by removing what is mistakenly considered to be an affix

edit from editor;peddle from peddler;enthuse from enthusiasmorientate from orientation

Backformation

burglar burglebeggar beg

enthusiasm enthusehamburger burger

Derivation is the forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing Words , as in misadviseRe-ask 

They are immediately Understandable because You know the meaning of the parts. 

Derivation stands in contrast to the process of inflection, which means the formation of grammatical variants of the same word, as with determine/determines/determining/determined.

Derivation

Examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:

adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)

adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern → modernise) in British English or -

ize (archaic → archaicize) in American English and Oxford spelling

adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)

adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)

noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)

noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)

verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)

verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)

verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)

Definition: Assigning an already existing word to a new syntactic category.

Examples:

butter (N)  to butter the breadpermit (V)  an entry permitempty (A)  to empty the litter-bin

Conversion

Acronomy is the process whereby a word is formed from the initials or be-ginning segments of a succession of words.

Examples:

severe acute respiratory syndrome  SARS

Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus SCUBA

Acronyms

Acronyms

constable on patrol cop

radar detection and ranging radar

aquired immune deficiency syndrome

AIDS

Acronyms

Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of another word. They are not words in their own right and cannot stand on their own in a sentence: if they are printed on their own they have a hyphen before or after them.

Prefixes and suffixes

Word creation with prefixes and suffixes

Some prefixes and suffixes are part of our living language, in that people regularly use them to create new words for modern products, concepts, or situations. For example:

word prefix or suffix new wordsecurity bio- biosecurityclutter de- decluttermedia multi- multimediaemail -er emailer

word prefix or suffix new wordsecurity bio- biosecurityclutter de- decluttermedia multi- multimediaemail -er emailer

word suffix new wordchild -ish childishwork -er workertaste -less tastelessidol -ize/-ise idolize/idoliselike -able likeable

SuffixesSuffixes are added to the end of an existing word. For example:

word prefix new wordhappy un- unhappycultural multi- multiculturalwork over- overworkspace cyber- cyberspacemarket super- supermarket

PrefixesPrefixes are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new word with a different meaning. For example:

An infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem (an existing word). It contrasts with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the end of a stem, such as a prefix or suffix.

Infix

Portuguese

There is an infix construction for the future and conditional tenses:

Eu fá-lo-ei amanhã. Literally: I will ma-it-ke tomorrow. Meaning: I will make it tomorrow.

Eu fá-lo-ia ontem. Literally: I would ma-it-ke yesterday. Meaning: I would make it yesterday.

Spanish

In Nicaragua and neighboring countries, the Spanish diminutive affix becomes an infix  it  in ⟨ ⟩names: Óscar [ˈoskar] → Osquítar [osˈkitar] (cf. standard Oscarito); Edgar → Edguítar; Victor → 

Victítor.

Arabic

Arabic uses a common infix,  t  ⟨ ⟩  for Form VIII verbs, usually a reflexive of Form I. It is placed ت

after the first consonant of the root; an epenthetic i- prefix is also added since words cannot 

begin with a consonant cluster. An example is اجتهد ijtahada "he worked hard", from جهد jahada "he strove". (The words "ijtihad" and "jihad" are nouns derived from these two verbs.)

Here you will find one or more explanations in English for the word kamhmu. Also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word kamhmu and, of course, kamhmu synonyms and on the right images related to the word kamhmu.

Khmu [kʰmuʔ] is the language of the Khmu people of the northern Laos region. It is also spoken in adjacent areas of Vietnam, Thailand and China. Khmu lends its name to the Khmuic branch of the Austroasiatic language family, the latter of which also includes Khmer and Vietnamese.

kamhmu