The“Miseducation”ofAmericanIndians

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"Asasavage,wecannottoleratehimanymorethanasahalf-civilizedparasite,wandererorvagabond.Theonlyalternativeleftistofithimbyeducationforcivilizedlife.TheIndian,thoughasimplechildofnaturewithmentalfacilitiesdwarfedandshriveled,whilegropinghiswayforgenerationsinthedarknessofbarbarism,alreadyseestheimportanceofeducation;bewilderedbytheglareofacivilizationaboveandbeyondhiscomprehension,heisneverthelessseekingtoadjusthimselftothenewconditionsbywhichheisencompassed.Heseesthattheknowledgepossessedbythewhitemanisnecessaryforself-preservation.

Educationbefore1492

vBeforelookingatthehistoryoftheAmericangovernment’sattemptsto“educate”AmericanIndians,itisimportanttorecognizethatIndiannationshadtheirowneducationalsystemsfirmlyinplacebythetimeColumbuslandedinHispaniola.

vSucheducationeffortswerebothformalandinformal.Educationwasdeliberate,planned,andvalued,designedbytribalelderstoreflectthesocial,cultural,political,andeconomicneedsoftheirtribe.

vTheinadequateeducationprovidedforIndianyouthpost-ColonizationrepresentsyetanotherwaytheAmericangovernmenthastakenadvantageofandfailedNativepeople.

“Contrarytopopularbelief,education,thetransmissionandacquisitionofknowledgeandskills– didnotcometotheNorthAmericancontinentontheNina,Pinta,andSantaMaria.WeNativeAmericanshaveeducatedour

youththrougharichandoraltradition…” ~Dr.HenriettaWhiteman-Mann

ColonialPeriodvAstheAmericancoloniestookhold,Euro-Americansfeltitwasimportantto“Christianize”and“civilize” NativePeoples.(NoregardwasgiventothefactthatNativePeoplehadtheirownreligions,customs,andformsofeducation.)

vBothGeorgeWashingtonandThomasJeffersonbeganformulatingpoliciesthatwouldpromotethe"civilizingprocess“throughwhichIndianpeoplewouldlearn,appreciate,andpracticeEuro-Americancultural,social,economic,andpoliticaltraditions.

vColonialmissionariesstartedschoolsforNativechildren.MissionariesweretrainedtoconvinceIndians(whowouldcertainlybeuntrustingandresistsendingtheirchildrentocolonialschools)thatfreeroomandboardinacharityschoolwasthekeytotheirchild'ssurvivalinanincreasinglyhostilecolonialenvironment.

vColonialattemptstouseeducationto“civilizeandChristianize”AmericanIndianchildrenfailed,however.FewIndiansattendedandevenfewergraduated.

Intothe1800svWithin20yearsaftertheConstitutionwassigned,twoseparatesystemsofIndianeducationhaddeveloped:

ütribaleducationorganizedandoperatedbyvariousIndiannations;

üfederally-subsidized educationorganizedandoperatedprimarilybyEuro-AmericanChristianorganizations.

TribalEducationvIn the early 1800s, several nations established sophisticated school systems for their children. The Cherokee and Choctaw created an education network which included over 200 classrooms.

vAmong the Cherokee, tribal literacy and journalism flourished as newspapers were published in both Cherokee and English languages. Their motive was clear, according to a Cherokee elder's advice to younger tribal members,

"Remember that the whites are near us. With them we have constant intercourse, and you must be sensible, that unless you can speak their language, read and write as they do, they will be able to cheat you and trample on your rights." (Nabokov, 1991:215.)

vIn1851,theCherokeeNationalCouncilcreatedtheCherokeeNationalFemaleSeminarythatwasoperatedbytheCherokeeNation,notthefederalgovernment.AttheSeminary,CherokeegirlstookcoursesinLatin,French,trigonometry,politicaleconomy,andliterarycriticism.Theyalsostageddramaticproductions,heldmusicrecitalsandpublishedtheirownnewsletter.

FederalEducation:MissionSchoolsChurch&Statepartnerto“educate”AmericanIndians

vDespiteIndianinterestineducationthatcouldhelptribalmemberscopewiththeendlessflowofEuro-Americansintotriballands,thefederalgovernmenttookanentirelydifferentpath.

vIn1819,theU.S.governmentcreateda"CivilizationFund"which providedfederalfundstochurchesandmissionaryorganizationstorunschools(MissionSchools)designedto“educateNativeAmericansinthewaysofthewhiteman.”

vThegoalwasto"civilize"NativeAmericansbygettingridoftheircustoms,traditions,religions,etc.whileteachingthemtoreadandwriteinonlyEnglish.

vTheBureauofIndianAffairs(BIA)wascreatedin1824bythefederalgovernment(andtellinglyplacedintotheU.S.DepartmentofWar)toadministerthefundsgiventotheschools.

TheIndianRemovalAct(1830)&ManualLaborSchoolsvTheIndianRemovalActwassignedintolawMay28,1830,authorizingthepresidenttograntunsettledlandsinthewestinexchangeforIndianlandswithinexistingstateborders.Afewtribeswentpeacefully,butmanyrightfullyresistedtheunjustrelocationpolicy.

vACommissionerofIndianAffairswasappointed(alsopositionedintheU.S.Dept.ofWar)todealwithremovedtribesandchargedwithfiguringoutasystemto“reeducate”Indianstolive“domesticated”livesintheirnewland.

vTheunfairandracistsystemofIndianeducationthatresulted–manuallaborschools-emphasizedvocationaltrainingastheidealtoassimilateIndiansintoindustrialsociety.

TheIndianRemovalAct(1830)&ManualLaborSchools

vManuallaborschoolsturnedthealleged“moral”projectof“civilizingIndians”intoafor-profitexercise,benefitingthereligiousgroupsrunningtheschoolsandsupportedbythegovernment.

vUnderthismodel,churcheswereprovidedhundredsofacresoflandforIndianchildrentoplow,maintainandharvest.ManychurchesmadehighprofitsformthefreelaborofAmericanIndians,creatingincreasedcompetitionforfederalfundingofmoremanuallaborschools.

vIronically,itwasthecompetitivefrictionamongrivalchurchesthatcontributedtotherepealoftheCivilizationFundin1873.

"KilltheIndianinhim,andsavetheman."

BoardingSchools

vBuildingonmodelsestablishedbymanuallaborschools,thegovernmentlookedtodefineanewsystemofIndianeducation.

vFederalplannersdidnotlikedayschoolmodels,whichtheyfeltkeptIndianstudentstoocloseandconnectedtotheirfamiliesandcommunities.(Suchaccessmadetheoverallgoalofassimilation anddeculturalization unsuccessful.)Thus,boardingschoolsbecamethemodelofchoice.

vTheinfamousCarlisleIndianSchool(1879-1918)wasthefirstsuchboardingschool.RichardPratt,itsfounder,attackedthetribalwayoflifeassocialistandcontrarytoAmericanvaluesofcivilization.

"KilltheIndianinhim,andsavetheman."~Capt.RobertH.Pratt,1892(founderofCarlisleSchool)

BoardingSchools

vBy1900,theBureauofIndianAffairswasopening25suchboardingschoolsin15states.

vEventually,over100,000childrenweresenttoover500suchschoolsthroughouttheUnitedStates.

BoardingSchoolsvLikeearliermodels,boardingschoolsweredesignedtoservethepurposesofthefederalgovernment,nottheneedsofIndianchildren.

vThe“education”processbeganwiththe(oftenforcible)removalofyoungchildrenfromtheirhomesandcommunitiesandtransportingthemtoplacesthatwereforeigntothem(bothinlocationandincustoms.)

vUponarrival,studentsweresubjectedtoEnglish-only,Anglo-centriccurriculumand“patrioticpropaganda.”Nativelanguages,customsandreligionswerepurposelyexcluded.

vAnothercentralfeaturewasteaching“workethic”throughforcedmanuallabor.(Inhisannualreportin1881,CommissionerofIndianAffairsHiramPricearguedthatpreviousattemptsto“civilize”Indiansfailedbecausetheydidnotteachthe“necessityoflabor”.)

vChildrenwereoftenundernourishedandsubjectedtoovercrowdedlivingspaces.

vCompulsoryattendancelawsmeantthatfamilieshasnochoiceinwhethertosendtheirchildrentotheseunjustboardingschools.

Warm-UpActivityvConsiderthehistoryyouhavelearnedregardingtheAmericangovernment’spoliciesfor“educating”AmericanIndiansandhowimportantitisthatthishistorybeacknowledged.

vDesignat-shirtthataddressesthishistoryinsomeway.ThepurposeoftheshirtistocallattentiontothemiseducationofNativePeoplethroughouthistory.

vYourshirtcanincludepictures,words,phrases,etc.Becreative!

BoardingSchoolstoSegregated PublicSchoolsvEventually,theboardingschoolexperimentbegantofail.Schoolswerebecomingovercrowdedduetothegovernment’scompulsoryattendancelaws,federalfundingdecreased,andresistancetotheinjusticegrewamongtribes,allofwhichmadethesystemtooproblematicforfederalofficialstomaintain.

vNotonlydidtheschoolsbecomepoliticalandeconomicliabilities,buttheyalsoprovedtobeineffectiveinachievingthegovernment’saimof“assimilation.”

vNativelanguages,spiritualpractices,andothercustomswerenotonlycontinuedbytribalelders,butpasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration.

vIn1906,CommissionerofIndianAffairsFrancisLeupp initiatedthenextplan– thetransferofIndiansintopublicschools.Thegovernmentbelievedthiswouldnotonlysavemoney,butwouldalsohelpwiththeirgoalof“Americanizing”Indianchildren.

vHowever,publicschoolswouldnotbetheperfectsolution.Withsegregationinfulleffectduringthe1900s,AmericanIndianswouldexperienceracismandunequalschoolinginthepublicsystem.

TheMeriamReportvIn1928,anindependentinvestigationoftheIndianOfficebytheBrookingsInstitution,knownastheMeriamReport,sharplycriticizedthequalityofeducationprovidedbygovernment-runIndianschools.

vThereportwasespeciallycriticalofvocationaleducationprograms,whichitnotedwereusedtoprovidestudentlabortokeeptheschoolsrunningandsavethegovernmentmoney.ThereportalsoharshlycriticizedthepolicyofremovingIndianchildrenfromtheirhomesandcommunities andtheseveredisciplinetheyexperiencedatboardingschools.

vThereportcalledformorechild-centered,culturallyappropriateeducationinkeepingwiththethen-currentphilosophyofprogressiveeducation.

vThereportsummarizedthatthemostfundamentalneedinIndianeducationwasa“changeingovernmentattitude.”

JohnCollierandthe“IndianNewDeal”vIn1933,leadingreformerandadvocateofIndianrightsJohnCollierbecametheCommissionerofIndianaffairs.

vHeoversawtheimplementationofmanyoftherecommendationsintheMeriamReport,includingincreasedIndianreligiousfreedomandgreatertribalself-government.

vTheJohnson-O’MalleyAct(1934)wasalsopassedduringCollier’sterm,whichauthorizedpaymentstostatesorterritoriesfortheeducationofIndiansinpublicinstitutions.

vSuchreformswerefeaturesofCollier’sIndianNewDeal,theimpactofwhichsignificantlyincreasedthenumberofIndianchildrenbeingservedbybothfederal(BIA)andpubliceducationalinstitutions.

vTheideaofreform,madepopularbyCollier’sNewDeal,increasedsentimentsto“free”theIndianfromgovernmentcontrol,particularlyfromthereservationsystem.

“Self-Determination”&theCivilRightsMovementvBythe1960s,tribeshaddevelopedacoreleadershipcapableofarticulatingIndianrightsandconcerns.

vInadditiontotheirprotestsofexistingfederalpolicies,thenewIndianleadershipadvocatedanagendaofself-determination,ortheideaof“lettingIndianpeopledecidetheirowndestiny”

vThespiritofself-determinationgaverisetoseveralIndianorganizations,suchasNationalIndianEducationAssociation(1967),theCoalitionofIndianControlledSchoolBoards(1971),andtheAmericanIndianMovement(1972).

vThepoliticalenergycreatedbysuchgroupshelpedtoenergizeeffortstocreatetriballycontrolledschools.

vIn1966,RoughRockDemonstrationSchoolopenedintheNavajoNationinArizonaasthefirstIndian-controlledschoolinmoderntimes.

vCitingthehighcollege-dropoutrateforNativestudents,theNavajotribalcouncilpassesaresolutionfoundingNavajoCommunityCollege(renamedDiné Collegein1977),thefirsttribalcollege.In1978,CongresspassestheTriballyControlledCommunityCollegeAssistanceAct.Today,thereare35tribalcollegesin13states.

Haliwa-Saponi TribalSchoolvIn1957,theHaliwa-Saponi openedoneofthefirsttribalschoolsintheUnitedStates.

vAttheheightoftheJimCrowEra,Nativestudentswereexperiencingracismandinadequateschoolinginsegregatedpublicschools.Tribalschoolswereonesolution.

vFrom1957-1969,theHaliwa-Saponi built,maintained,andoperatedtheHaliwa IndianSchool,oneofthefirsttribalschoolsintheU.S.andtheonlynon-reservation,tribally-supportedIndianschoolinthestate.

vTribalmemberspaidforsuppliesandmaterials,thebuilding,andmaintenanceoutoftheirownpockets.TeacherswereinitiallypaidbydonationstakenupbytheTribe.(Afterafewyearsofoperation,thestateDepartmentofPublicInstructionprovidedfundingforteachersalaries.)

vWhiletheschoolshutdownin1969,itwasreopenedinAugust2000.Theschoolincludesacurriculumbasedonstandardcourseofstudy,smallclassrooms,technology,andAmericanIndianStudies.ItpromotestheculturalandtraditionalheritageoftheHaliwa-Saponi peopleofHalifaxandWarrenCo.

IndianSelf-DeterminationandEducationActof1975vTheeffortsofIndianeducatorsandleadersalsopromptedthepublicationoftwomajorstudiesinIndianeducation:IndianEducation:ANationalTragedy– ANationalChallenge(U.S.Senate,1969)andTheNationalStudyofAmericanIndianEducation(1970)

vThesereportshelpedsecurepassageoftheIndianSelf-DeterminationandEducationActof1975,whichprovidedAmericanIndiansincreasedcontrolovertheirchildren’seducation

vTheactauthorizedspecialfundingforprogramsinreservationschoolsandforthefirsttime,off-reservationurbanschools.

vItalsoadvocatedforparentinvolvementinprogramplanning,fortheestablishmentofcommunity-runschools,andforculturallyrelevantandbilingualcurriculummaterials.

ReportspaintagloomypictureofIndianEducation

vSeveralreportswerealsopublishedduringtheeraofself-determination,suchastheIndianNationsatRisk(1991),theWhiteHouseConferenceonIndianEducation(1992),andtheExecutiveorderonAmericanIndianandAlaskaNativeEducation(1998).IngeneralthesereportsindicatethatwhileprogresshadbeenmadeinIndianeducation,theroadaheadheldmanychallenges.

vOverall,itwasreportedthat:o Indianshavethehighestdropoutratesandthelowestachievementrates.oMostIndiansweresubjecttoschoolswithEuro-centriccurriculums,highteacherturnover,underpreparedteachers,limitedaccesstoculturallearningresources,limitedaccesstotechnologyandcomputers,andracism.Theseproblemsweredeepenedbyadeclineinfederalspending.

oCenturiesofracism,genocideandassimilationistpolicescannotbeundoneinamatterofyears.

ReportspainagloomypictureofIndianEducation

vIn2001,the“ComprehensiveFederalIndianEducationPolicyStatement”wasreleased.Itstatedthatschoolreformmustbesystematicandinclusiveofallaspectsoftriballife.Therelationshipbetweeneducationalreformandthestrugglestopreservetribalhomelands,governments,languages,cultures,economies,andsocialstructuresismadeexplicit.

vThisreportservedasthemodelfor“TheExecutiveOrderonAmericanIndianandNativeAlaskanEducation”issuedin1998bytheClintonadministration.Thisissueofthisexecutiveorderwasahistoricmoment,symbolizingtheeffortsofcontemporaryAmericanleaderstosupportself-determinationbutalsothegovernmentsacknowledgementofthisinherentright.

vWhileprogresshasbeenmade,Indianstudents,incomparisontoallothers,arestillthemostdisproportionallyaffectedbypoverty,loweducationalattainment,andlimitedaccesstoeducationalopportunities.

vAdditionally,thenumberofIndianyouth(12-17yrs.)engaginginhigh-riskbehaviorsisvast.Forexample,druguseismorethantwicethenationalaverageandalcoholuseishigherthanthenationalaverage.

TowardTrueNativeEducation:ATreatyof1992

“Itistimeforanewtreaty,aTreatyof1992,toendashameful,secretwar.Forfivehundredyears,ourtribalpeoplehavebeenresistingthesiegeofthenon-Nativesocietiesthathavedevelopedinournativeland...Ourchildrenfacetheconsequencesofthiswartoday.Everytribalmemberhasfeltthebitterpainsofthisrelentlesssiege.Itdominatesourlives.Itiskillingourchildren.ItisdestroyingourNativecommunities.”-“TowardTrueNativeEducation:ATreatyof1992,”IndianNationsatRiskTaskForce(1994)

vIn1992,theIndianNationsatRiskTaskForcepublishedareportplacingtheliabilityforthefailingsofAmericanIndians’educationinthehandsoftheU.S.government.Yet,italsonotesthatchangewillonlyoccurwhenNativeandnonnativesocietiesmakethecommitmenttoworktogether.

vThereportsummarizesthatNativenationsarestrugglingbecause:o SchoolshavefailedtonurturetheintellectualdevelopmentandacademicperformanceofNativechildren.o Indianlandsandresourcesareconstantlybeingbesiegedbyoutsideforces.o RelationshipsbetweentribesandthefederalgovernmentfluctuatewiththewilloftheU.S.Congressanddecisionsbythecourts.

Readanddiscussthequoteprovidedtoyou:vWhatdoesthequoteprovidedtellyouregardingthehistoryoftherelationshipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandEuro-Americancolonists?

vWhatdoesthequotetellyouaboutthehistoryofAmericanIndianeducation?

vWheredowegofromhere?ImagineyouhavebeennamedasamemberonataskforceforimprovingtheeducationofNativeAmericans.Whatideasdoyouhave?Whoseassistancewouldyouneedandwhy?

v"Thewhiteman'ssuperiortechnology,hungerforland,andethnocentrismseeminglyknewnobounds.ThewhitethreattoIndianscameinmanyforms:smallpox,missionaries,Conestogawagons,barbedwire,andsmokinglocomotives.Andintheend,itcameintheformofschools."CornellPewewardy

v“Understandingthe“theIndianproblem”isnotaproblemofchildrenandfamiliesbutratheraproblemthathasbeenconsciouslyandhistoricallyproducedbyandthroughthesystemsofcolonization:amultidimensionalforceunderwrittenbyWesternChristianity,definedbywhitesupremacy,andfueledbyglobalcapitalism.”SandyGrande

v“Indianeducationwasneversimplyaboutthedesireto“civilize”orevendeculturalize apeople,butrather,fromitsveryinception,itwasaprojectdesignedtocolonizeIndianmindsasameansofgainingaccesstoIndianlabor,land,andresources.”SandyGrande

THECARLISLEINDIANINDUSTRIALSCHOOL:

ThisschoolwasthemodelforanationwidesystemofboardingschoolsintendedtoassimilateAmericanIndiansintomainstreamculture.Over10,000indigenouschildrenattendedtheschoolbetween1879and1918.Despiteidealisticbeginnings,theschoolleftamixedandlastinglegacy,creatingopportunityforsomestudentsandconflictedidentitiesforothers.Inthiscemeteryare186gravesofAmericanIndianstudentswhodiedwhileatCarlisle.

SourcesRedPedagogy:NativeAmericanSocial&PoliticalThought,SandyGrande(2004)

http://americanindiantah.com/lesson_plans/ml_boardingschools.html

http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nc-american-indians/7266

http://www.edweek.org/ew/projects/2013/native-american-education/history-of-american-indian-education.html

http://americanindiantah.com/lesson_plans/ml_boardingschools.html

http://www.ithaca.edu/wise/american_indian/

http://www.edweek.org/ew/projects/2013/native-american-education/running-in-place.html