Post on 18-Jun-2020
The Messinian of the Nijar Basin (SE Spain): sedimentation,
depositional environments and paleogeographic evolution
A.R. Fortuina,*, W. Krijgsmanb
aFaculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The NetherlandsbPaleomagnetic Laboratory ‘‘Fort Hoofddijk’’, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 17, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands
Received 29 May 2002; accepted 1 November 2002
Abstract
The reconstruction of the depositional events related to the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC) of the Mediterranean is
generally hampered by an incomplete stratal record in the circum-Mediterranean basins. The sediments of the northern part of
the Nijar Basin, however, provide an excellent and continuous record of Late Messinian sediments because features of severe
erosion are lacking. Especially, the successions of the deeper part of the basin had sufficient accommodation space to warrant
ongoing deposition and may thus serve as a testing ground for existing hypotheses regarding the MSC. Conformable contacts
with the overlying Pliocene and good correlation possibilities with the adjacent, astronomically dated, Messinian of the Sorbas
Basin provide the necessary age constraints.
The main body of evaporites in the Nijar Basin (Yesares Formation) has been affected by local dissolution and erosion prior
to deposition of the latest Messinian (Lago–Mare) facies. Pelitic float breccias show textures indicating flowage and/or mass
transport and include slumped and slided stratal packets due to foundering of the mixed evaporitic–clastic margin. Increased
runoff of meteoric waters probably played an important role as these packet slides are perfectly sealed by the hyposaline Lago–
Mare strata. Field observations show that marginal sediments, commonly classified as the Terminal Carbonate Complex (TCC),
are a lateral equivalent of the basinal Yesares evaporites.
The latest Messinian deposits (Feos Formation) are characterized by a sedimentary cyclicity, related to fluctuating base
levels, consisting of chalky–marly laminitic strata alternating with continental coarser clastic intervals. Despite considerable
W–E facies changes and indications for discrete tectonic events, a persistent sequential pattern of eight Lago–Mare cycles is
present, which are interpreted as precession-controlled variations in regional climate. Instead of one major desiccation event in
the latest Messinian, the repeatedly fluctuating water levels of the Lago–Mare episode may have been the cause of the
widespread vigorous erosion and canyon cutting in the ‘‘Lower Evaporites’’. Abrupt, non-erosional contacts with the normal
marine Pliocene take place above the continental interval of the last Lago–Mare cycle, indicating that flooding took place
during a period of lowered water levels.
The paleogeographic configuration of the Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins has changed considerably during the Messinian.
Separation of the formerly interconnected basins is thought to have started in the late Yesares times by tectonic uplift of the
basement complexes. In the latest Messinian of the Nijar Basin, two different coarse clastic supply areas can be distinguished
which point to the partial emergence of the Sierra Cabrera and the Cabo de Gata block and activity of the Sierra Alhamilla and
0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00377-9
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-20-444-7351; fax: +31-20-444-9941.
E-mail address: fora@geo.vu.nl (A.R. Fortuin).
www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo
Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242
Carboneras faults. Concerning the overall regional tectonic activity, tectonics were probably also instrumental for the restoration
of the Atlantic gateway in the basal Pliocene.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Messinian; Mediterranean; Spain; Sedimentation; Paleogeography; Lago–Mare
1. Introduction
Since the discovery of the pan-Mediterranean
extension of Messinian evaporites and associated
facies types (Hsu et al., 1973; Ryan et al., 1973),
numerous papers and working hypotheses have con-
tributed to a better understanding of the complex and
enigmatic scenario of rapidly changing biotic and
depositional environments that governed this Messi-
nian salinity crisis (MSC being the period of evaporite
deposition and subsequent Lago–Mare facies, Hsu et
al., 1977; Cita, 1982; Cita and McKenzie, 1986;
Rouchy and Saint Martin, 1992; Krijgsman et al.,
1999). Sedimentation in the increasingly restricted
Mediterranean basins was controlled by a combina-
tion of tectonic, eustatic and climatic factors (Weijer-
mars, 1988; Clauzon et al., 1996; Krijgsman et al.,
1999). Astronomical dating of the post-evaporitic
Pliocene and the pre-evaporitic Messinian sediments
now provides an accurate time frame for the MSC,
which occurred between 5.96 and 5.33 Ma (Lourens
et al., 1996; Krijgsman et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al.,
2002).
Although most MSC interpretations converge to a
scenario of progressive isolation of the Mediterranean
basins in a two-step model, the precise course of
events is still a matter of debate (Clauzon et al.,
1996; Krijgsman et al., 1999). Certain is that con-
striction of the Mediterranean–Atlantic gateways
under relatively dry and warm climates (Suc and
Bessais, 1990) ultimately led to deposition of marine
evaporites all over the Mediterranean area. The
‘Lower Evaporites’ of Sicily, the Gessoso–Solfifera
Formation of the Northern Apennines and the Yesares
Formation of SE Spain are attributed to this first
phase. The presence of such evaporites in the deep
Mediterranean basins, however, has not been proven
because they have never been drilled to their base.
During the second phase, the Mediterranean seems to
have been almost completely isolated from the Atlan-
tic, then at least periodically forming predominantly
oligohaline water masses providing characteristic
biofacies, the Lago–Mare (Hsu et al., 1977; Cita et
al., 1978). The ‘‘Upper Evaporites’’ of Sicily, the
Colombacci Formation of the Northern Apennines
and the Zorreras and Feos formations of SE Spain
are but a few examples of this Mediterranean-wide
occurring terminal Messinian environment in both on-
and offshore basins.
The restriction of the Mediterranean–Atlantic gate-
way was suggested to have initially caused a major
draw-down of sea-level up to at least 2 km (Clauzon,
1973; Stampfli and Hocker, 1989). In many marginal
basins, a network of subaerial drainage channels and
canyons formed, as has been concluded from numer-
ous indications for local scouring of valley incisions,
or formation of ravinement surfaces above the marine
evaporites (Cita and Ryan, 1978; Cita, 1982; Rouchy,
1982; Stampfli and Hocker, 1989; Savoye and Piper,
1991; Alonso et al., 1991; Delrieu et al., 1993; Druck-
man et al., 1995). Periodically, waters may have risen
again to approximately pre-existing levels as indicated
by strontium isotope ratios of euryhaline ostracods
(DeDeckker et al., 1988; McCulloch and DeDeckker,
1989).
In many of the classic Messinian basins, such as
Sicily and the Northern Apennines, the second phase
sediments overly the first phase evaporites with an
erosional and often angular unconformity. The Sorbas
and Nijar basins of SE Spain, however, have been
protected from vigorous erosion—as will be discussed
here—because tectonic uplift of basement complexes
during the MSC created isolated to semi-enclosed
basins that remained favourable for sediment accu-
mulation despite changing water levels. Therefore,
these basins contain one of the most complete land-
based Messinian successions including a substantial
body of evaporites in the basin centres and reefal
carbonates along part of their margins (Dronkert,
1976, 1985; Ott d’Estevou, 1980; Rouchy, 1982). In
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242214
contrast to the intensively studied sediments of the
Sorbas Basin, surprisingly little attention has been
paid to the Upper Messinian of the Nijar Basin apart
from detailed studies of the evaporite record (Rouchy,
1982; Dronkert, 1985; De la Chapelle, 1988; Van de
Poel, 1991, 1994; Lu et al., 2001). Therefore, the main
objective of this paper is to further elucidate the
physical stratigraphy of the Nijar deposits, their lateral
and vertical changes and their potential for increased
understanding of the late Messinian events. In addi-
tion, the diverging upper Messinian stratigraphy with
regard to the Sorbas Basin plus paleogeographic
aspects will be discussed.
2. Geological setting
The Neogene intramontane basins of SE Spain are
situated in the internal part of the Betic Cordilleras
(Fig. 1) and formed by motion along the NE–SW
Trans-Alboran shear zone due to continental collision
between the African and European plates (de Larou-
ziere et al., 1988). The resulting transpressional to
transtensional basins tend to be oriented parallel to the
main direction of master strike-slip faults and origi-
nated in the Late Miocene when convergent motions
in the Alboran domain became oblique. Fault kine-
matic studies indicate that the basin dynamics was
fundamentally influenced by rotation of the major
compressional axis during the Neogene (Montenat et
al., 1987a,b; De la Chapelle, 1988; Coppier et al.,
1990; Biermann, 1995; Stapel et al., 1996; Huibregtse
et al., 1998; Montenat and Ott d’Estevou, 1999; Jonk
and Biermann, 2002). These stress variations resulted
in the alternation of free-sliding and locking regimes
in relation to movements on master faults. In Torto-
nian times, a NW–SE orientation resulted especially
in dextral displacements along the W–E-oriented
Fig. 1. Map showing the outline of the SE Betic Neogene basins plus the distribution of the Messinian reef tract and the sinistral Palomares and
Carboneras strike-slip faults. The line through the Sorbas–Nijar basins indicates the position of the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 215
Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area in the northern Nijar Basin (modified after Van de Poel, 1991) giving the locations of the stratigraphic columns shown in Fig. 9.
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216
boundary faults such as the faultzone bordering the
northern parts of Sierra Alhamilla—and continuing
into Sierra Cabrera towards the coastal area (Gafa-
rillos fault). During the Early Messinian, an abrupt
clockwise rotation to N–S compression ended this
activity and activated the NNE–SSW to NE–SW
trending sinistral faults (e.g. Palomares and Carbone-
ras faults, Fig. 1).
The Nijar Basin is the southeasternmost basin bor-
dering the Alboran Sea (Fig. 1). The still active, NE–
SW oriented, sinistral Carboneras (or Serrata) strike-
slip zone separates the basin from the Sierra de Gata
volcanic high (De la Chapelle, 1988; Montenat and Ott
d’Estevou, 1999a,b). This high forms part of the
Alboran volcanic province and various volcanic suites
such as Serravallian–calcalkaline volcanic complexes
(Zeck, 2000) and Early Messinian ultrapotassic rocks
and alkali–basalts (Serrano, 1992) attest to a complex
history. The Messinian sediments that overlie this up to
1500 m thick volcanic sequence are, unfortunately,
strongly reduced in thickness (De la Chapelle, 1988).
The most extensive successions here are located
between Carboneras and Agua Amarga (Van de Poel
et al., 1984; Brachert et al., 1996) and connect the
northern part of the Nijar Basin with theMediterranean.
Our study focuses especially on the northern part
of the Nijar Basin because much of the low-lying
central parts (Campo de Nijar) are covered by Quater-
nary deposits. The study area (Figs. 1 and 2) is at
present separated from the adjacent Sorbas Basin by
the W–E oriented Sierra Cabrera (Fig. 3). The two
basins were, however, still connected during most of
the Messinian as the marginal Messinian reef tracts
fringing the Sierra Alhamilla continue uninterruptedly
from the southern margin of the Sorbas Basin to the
western margin of the Nijar Basin (Fig. 2).
3. Stratigraphic background
Late Miocene sedimentation in the Nijar Basin
started, like in the adjoining Sorbas and Vera basins,
with a latest Tortonian–Early Messinian transgressive
unit (Fig. 4). This mixed bio- and lithoclastic unit
(Azagador Member of Turre Formation, Volk and
Rondeel, 1964) onlaps over either the metamorphic
Fig. 3. N–S–SE cross-section through the Sorbas and Nijar basins. N.B. Vertical scale 9� exaggerated with regard to the horizontal scale.
Note the overall higher elevation of the Sorbas Basin. The Cerro Cantona high, which is the corridor connecting Sierra Cabrera with Sierra
Alhamilla, is bordered along its southern margin by a fault zone delimiting the northern Nijar Basin (modified after Van de Poel, 1994).
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 217
basement or the folded and eroded Early Tortonian
turbiditic basin fill (Chozas Formation). The Azagador
unit passes upward, and laterally towards the basin
center, into an over 100 m thick marly unit (Abad
Member of Turre Formation). These marls are charac-
terized by a cyclic pattern of alternating whitish marly
chalks and beige marls in the lower part which display a
sudden change towards sapropelitic laminites, marls
and chalks in the upper part. The ‘‘Lower Abad’’ marls
comprise well-preserved open marine, upper bathyal–
lower epibathyal foraminiferal assemblages (Baggley,
2000) while the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ marls show an upward
shoaling, plus change towards increased restriction of
marine conditions (Van de Poel, 1992; Baggley, 2000).
Various studies have shown that the sedimentary
cyclicity in the Abad marls is related to orbital forcing
with dominance of precession cycles (Sierro et al.,
1997, 1999, 2001; Krijgsman et al., 1999, 2001;
Vazquez et al., 2000). The marls become less thick
and sandier toward the western basin margin where
they interfinger with reefal debris forming the distal
parts of the clinoforms of the well-developed marginal
reefal complex (Cantera Member of Turre Formation).
The upward change of laminitic Abad marls into
dominantly gypsiferous strata (Yesares Member,
modified into Yesares Formation by Van de Poel,
1991) is rapid, but conformable. Van de Poel (1991)
distinguishes three members in his Yesares Formation:
Oolite Member, Gypsum Member and Manco Mem-
ber. The Oolite Member comprises the mixed clastic–
evaporitic strata, rich in oolites, which onlap eroded
Cantera clinoforms along the western basin margin.
The member as such is a local equivalent of the well
known Late Messinian Terminal Carbonate Complex
(TCC; Esteban, 1979; Esteban and Giner, 1980;
Dabrio et al., 1981; Riding et al., 1991a; Rouchy
and Saint Martin, 1992). The Gypsum Member is
characterized by massive gypsum beds alternating
with pelitic (laminitic) and/or sandier interbeds. Both
gypsum deposited from brines and reworked gypsum
occurs, showing an upward trend towards dominantly
detrital gypsum. Geochemical and sedimentary inves-
tigations suggest that the Yesares selenites were
formed in ‘deep’ marine brines (Rosell et al., 1998;
Lu et al., 2001; Cornee et al., 2002), although fossil
assemblages from muds intercalated in the gypsum of
Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic overview of the Messinian–Pliocene successions in the northern Nijar Basin (Gafares area) and correlation with the
(partly equivalent) units in the Sorbas Basin.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242218
the western part of the Sorbas Basin reflect deposition
around the transition from inner to outer shelf depth
(Saint Martin et al., 2000). The Manco Member
comprises the diagenetically affected levels that con-
sist of vuggy limestone and/or dolomite and associ-
ated marly and sandy strata. Van de Poel (1991)
considers fresh water alteration of gypsum to be the
essential mechanism for their genesis.
The uppermost Messinian is a relatively poorly
studied unit named Feos Formation (Van de Poel,
1991; modified after Feos Member, Van de Poel et al.,
1984). It more or less covers the ‘‘complexe post-
evaporitique’’ of French authors and corresponds to
the ‘‘Lago–Mare episode’’ in the Mediterranean fol-
lowing current usage of Late Messinian facies types
(Hsu et al., 1977; Cipollari et al., 1999; Orszag-
Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., 2001). This up
to 100 m thick unit comprises a rich variety of
lithologies witnessing strongly fluctuating environ-
mental conditions.
Pliocene sediments (Cuevas Formation, Volk and
Rondeel, 1964) overlie theMessinian strata and consist
of poorly stratified fossiliferous calcisiltites and calcar-
enites. They contain the earliest Pliocene Sphaeroidi-
nellopsis–Globorotalia margaritae association in their
basal part, while the benthic foraminiferal association
indicates deposition in an outer shelf environment (Van
de Poel, 1991 and own observations).
4. Sedimentation of the Late Messinian evaporites
(Yesares Formation)
Before discussing the facies distribution and
paleogeographical evolution of the Nijar Basin dur-
ing the evaporitic phase of the MSC (Section 6),
additional lithological data will be provided con-
cerning the rapid lateral syn- and post depositional
changes already indicated by Van de Poel (1991).
Extensive outcrop studies permit some deviating
interpretations concerning lateral changes, local
importance of slumping and sliding associated with
evaporite dissolution and collapse phenomena and
the prominent role of detrital gypsum towards the
top of the unit. The diagenetically affected Yesares
sediments were divided by Van de Poel (1991) in
the Lower and Upper Manco Limestone unit (LML
and UML). The LML, developed as several metres
of thick vuggy, dolomitic limestone breccia, is
found at the very base of the formation especially
in the neighbourhood of river Gafares and in the
Collado del Manco (Fig. 2). The UML comprises
the dissolved gypsum fragments of often graded,
calcareous gypsarenites (Figs. 5 and 6d) of the
upper half of the formation. In contrast to the
chaotic, totally altered dissolution facies of the
LML, the UML strata kept their bedding character-
istics.
Fig. 5. Lithostratigraphic overview of the Yesares Formation in the Gafares area plus the transition to the overlying Feos Formation indicated by
the presence of a black manganese level. The chaotic strata, exposed along Arroyo Gafares, are interpreted as a result of local evaporite
dissolution and collapse plus associated sliding, mainly consisting of packets of broken strata derived from the Upper Manco Member. The
chaotic mass is sealed by proximal sandy turbidites forming part of the uppermost UMM cycle, the top of which includes the first hyposaline
marly beds. For legend, see Fig. 4.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 219
4.1. The regular basinal successions
The Yesares Formation (Fig. 6a,b) starts with
massive primary evaporites, but gradually, the depo-
sitional gypsum becomes replaced by detrital ele-
ments such as terrigenous clastics, oolitic grains and
reworked gypsum. Evaporitic, clastic and calcareous
pelitic interbeds regularly alternate which results in a
Fig. 6. Photographs of the Yesares Formation. (a) View on Gafares with the Loma de los Yesares ridge seen from the western valley margin of
Arroyo Gafares. The arrow in the middle part of the photo indicates the base of the Yesares Formation, whereas the arrow at right in the foreground
indicates the exposures of slidedUML strata in ArroyoGafares. An interrupted line indicates the contact between regular and slided strata. (b) View
on theYesares-type succession exposed in Loma de los Yesares. The left part exposes the Yesares evaporites and interbedded fines. The arrows 1–4
indicate the 4 coarsening-up cycles forming the UML unit. (c) Erosional contact betweenmassive Yesares gypsum (lower right) and conglomerates
rich in reworked gypsum. Contact indicated with an interrupted line. Hammer for scale. (d) Example of a vuggy sandy limestone of the UML unit.
The vugs are the voids of dissolved gypsum clearly showing upward grading. Such beds pass laterally in non-dissolved turbiditic gypsarenites.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242220
distinct cyclic pattern (Rouchy, 1982). The type
section of the Yesares Formation in the Nijar Basin
located just E of Gafares (Fig. 5) includes approx-
imately nine gypsum–pelite cycles followed by four
calciclastic–gypsarenitic sequences (Fig. 6b). The top
of the formation is formed by a gypsarenitic brown–
black Mn-hydroxide-enriched level that forms the top
of the 4th clastic sequence. This ‘‘Mn bed’’ is a useful
markerbed as it can be traced laterally over several
kilometres.
The basal Yesares Member is widely exposed in
the area NE of Los Feos (Fig. 2). Here, around 50 m is
exploited. The gypsum is developed as metres thick
beds alternating with only decimeters thick clayey to
sandy interbeds (seven cycles exposed). This massive-
looking succession is comparable to the Yesares
cycles such as quarried 5 km to the north in the
Sorbas Basin, although individual gypsum beds may
be thicker there. A pronounced erosional unconform-
ity (Barranco Gordo, Fig. 6c) separates the upper
gypsum beds, here developed as very thick beds
(2–4-m range) alternating with 1–5 dm thick calcar-
enitic interbeds from four crudely stratified conglom-
erate sheets. These sheets consist of abundant
reworked gypsum (clast size up to 30 cm) and poorly
rounded lithoclasts (basement dolomites and quartz-
ites, Porites blocks and Manco limestones) and form
the local transition to the overlying Feos Formation.
Eastward, this erosional unconformity decreases in
significance. The gypsum conglomerates pass into
mixed sandy to conglomeratic and gypsiferous strata
forming the four sandy–calcarenitic sequences of the
upper part of the type section.
The UML calciclastics of the type area tend to be
graded and laminated ranging in composition from a
very high content of detrital gypsum to extremely
sandy varieties. Some beds clearly show Bouma Ta–c
turbidite sequences (paleocurrent directions to SSE).
Selenitic gypsum interbeds are uncommon. The
proportion of fine-grained and laminated detrital
gypsum beds increases upward and eastward versus
a decreasing amount of lithoclastic input and overall
thinning. West of Gafares, the four UML sequences
attain their sandiest aspect in the northernmost part
of Section D (Fig. 5). Crudely graded and amalga-
mated sandstones suggest transport to SE directions.
Selenitic gypsum interbeds are more common here.
The lateral changes and cyclic aspect suggest that the
UML clastics were deposited in small (proximal)
submarine fan lobes.
The dark Mn-enrichment layer at the top of the
Yesares Formation has strongly affected 2 m of
graded, amalgamated and slumped gypsarenites near
the village of Gafares. Just below this level, saprope-
litic marls occur which contain the remains of a
monospecific fish fauna characterized by Aphanius
crassicaudus (De la Chapelle and Gaudant, 1987).
Samples from the top of this bed yielded, besides
numerous fish remains, also some Chara oogonia.
Further east, in the Collado del Manco area, turbidite
a–c intervals from this level indicate transport to
N200jS, while slumpfold orientations also indicate
a SSW downslope movement.
4.2. Dissolution-affected successions
Chaotically arranged stratal packets are exposed
along Arroyo Gafares and in the Collado del Manco
where they are sandwiched between the roughly 10 m
thick top part of the formation and the basal LML
(Fig. 5). These chaotic intervals are characterized by
the combination of dissolution phenomena, affecting
the intercalated evaporites, plus features indicating
slumping and sliding of packets of strata. At Gafares,
these deposits pass eastward rapidly into undisturbed
and undissolved Yesares sediments via a partially
exposed slide scar (oriented N110jE; Figs. 5 and
6a). The stratigraphic thickness of the chaotic mass
exposed along the riverbed equals that of the unde-
formed Yesares–Upper Manco successions laterally.
The slide mass is hardly exposed W of the riverbed
where it has a maximum lateral extent of 400 m
judging from the reappearing evaporites. The Gafares
slide mass starts closely above a thin veneer of
sheared marls forming contact with Uppper Abad
sediments and limestone-pack breccia (1.5 m; Fig.
7a). Then, the lithology changes abruptly into an
upward fining, blocky float breccia (7 m thick; Fig.
7a) with rounded fragments of metamorphic basement
rocks and Cantera reefal debris. The pack breccias are
representative for dissolution and collapse of evapor-
ites, as exemplified by Van de Poel (1991), but the
mud-rich floatstone with extralithoclasts clearly
reflects mass transport. Higher up, interrupted by
non-exposed intervals, follow packets of partially
broken and crumpled sandy limestones of the UML
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 221
Fig. 7. The Gafares slide mass as exposed in Arroyo Gafares. (a) Sketch of the basal contact as exposed in the valley wall below the house standing in the foreground of Fig. 6a (N.B.
this part of the succession is presently poorly exposed). (b and c) Examples of local brittle deformation within stratal packets of UML lithology suggesting some degree of (early)
diagenesis before deformation. Hammer for scale. (d) Slide sealing erosional contact between dominantly deformed pelitic strata of the slided UML unit and graded thick-bedded
gypsiferous sandstones belonging to the 4th UML cycle. Hammer at contact.
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unit (Fig. 7b,c), suggesting that some degree of
lithification had already taken place before the entire
mass was erosively covered by the coarse sandy
turbidites of the uppermost detrital UML cycle (Fig.
7d).
Eastward, in the Collado del Manco (Fig. 2),
collapse pack float breccias also replace Yesares
evaporites. The highly chaotic association is followed
by up to 50 m of slumped and slided UML strata
consisting of deformed packets of brownish clays,
grey marls and calcisiltites. The top is again formed
by highly crumpled pelites and is sealed by 10 m of
sandy, laminated calcisiltitic and calcarenitic turbi-
dites and associated fines.
The rapid lateral transition from chaotic, dissolu-
tion related, stratal packets to undisturbed and unal-
tered Yesares successions is interpreted as slumping
and sliding of an already semi-indurated overburden
towards newly created space after local dissolution of
Lower Yesares evaporites. This process must have
taken place before the topmost UML sequence was
deposited, as indicated by the sharp sealing contact of
the chaotic strata by gravelly and sandy gypsum
turbidites forming the base of the highest UML fan
lobe (Fig. 7d). Dissolution-related massflow deposits,
carrying basement metamorphics and Cantera lime-
stone, are common along the NW basin margin. Their
basinward occurrence suggests that tongues of mass
transported debris from the basin margin could reach
the dissolution-bound depressions.
The dolomitic limestone breccias are suggested to
be the product of freshwater alteration (Van de Poel,
1991). Although we do not have direct geochemical
evidence for freshwater influences, indirect evidence
comes from finding Chara in marls just above the
slumped and slided strata. Moreover, vuggy lime-
stones investigated from the top of the formation
suggest karst and vadose diagenesis (C. Taberner,
2001; personal communication). Consequently, we
conclude that the Nijar Basin must have been tempo-
rarily flushed with brackish to fresh waters after
deposition of the main body of evaporites.
4.3. The NW basin margin deposits
The evaporitic succession of the Yesares Formation
progressively wedges out towards the basin margin
where it also becomes increasingly chaotic. Between
motorway A 340 and Polopos (Fig. 2), the combina-
tion of post-depositional evaporite dissolution, plus
collapse and sliding of Upper Yesares sediments,
gives this unit a chaotic, olistostrome-like aspect.
Gypsum still occurs as broken, decameter sized, rafts
embedded in pelitic float breccias. These gypsum rafts
tend to be arranged in an imbricated, SE dipping
position with regard to the overall stratal dip suggest-
ing basinward (SE) displacement. The associated,
highly inhomogeneous float breccia consists of many
irregular tails of muddy intervals indicating viscous
flowage. Rounded blocks of Porites limestones,
derived from the Cantera Member, become a domi-
nant element in the marly float breccias towards the
reefal tract where primary gypsum is entirely absent.
Dissolution and collapse did locally continue after the
Messinian because the Pliocene cover has in some
places been incorporated in the chaos. The general
pattern, however, is that this chaotic mass is covered
by the Oolite Member towards the reefal flanks
(which is also partly incorporated in it) or the Feos
Formation more distally.
The stratigraphic relation between evaporites and
reefal facies is not exposed in the Nijar Basin because
unaltered evaporites do not occur in the marginal
areas. Nevertheless, the replacing dissolution facies
can be traced laterally until the reefal flanks of the
Cantera Member (Cerro de la Lancha–Barranco del
Pino area, Fig. 2) where approximately 15 m of
chaotic float breccia overlies the Abad marls. This
float breccia also overlaps the distal parts of the
Cantera clinoforms and is topped by sandy oolites
and associated skeletal and lithoclastic packstones of
the Oolite Member. Clinoform upward, the float
breccia rapidly pinches out, making place for oolithic
deposits. This situation shows much affinity with the
stratigraphic position of collapse breccias in the
Algerian Murdjadjo reef near Oran (Saint Martin,
1990) and indicates that evaporitic strata were depos-
ited on the distal flanks of the clinoforms.
The facies architecture of the Oolite Member
occurring along the NW basin margin is complex
due to rapid lateral changes with the local intercala-
tion of a prograding, coarse clastic fan-shaped unit.
Where oolithic strata onlap over the youngest Hal-
imeda-rich clinoform bed of the Cantera Member, the
contact is erosional because various cliff-like paleo-
escarpments of several metres height have been cut
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 223
into Cantera carbonates. In front of these, and also
more distally, up to 30 m3 large blocks of displaced
Porites is often found associated with coarse clastics
and overgrown by stromatolite beds, suggesting that
they formed mini reliefs in a quiet coastal area and
situated in front of a partially emerged reefal front
(Fig. 8a). The associated clastics (blocks up to 50 cm
in diameter) mainly consist of angular dark schists and
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242224
white quartz embedded in a sandy matrix, although
flat pebble beds (suggesting a beach environment),
thrombolites and gypsum pseudomorphs in oolithic
grainstones can also be observed. Distally from the
youngest Halimeda bed, the basal oolites have been
incorporated in float breccias (Fig. 8b).
Just distal from the reef front near Barranco del
Pino (Fig. 2), marly float breccias on top of sandy
Abad strata are followed by up to some 15 m of
whitish coated to entirely oolithic sandstones, strongly
reminiscent of the Sorbas Member in the Sorbas
Basin. Near the basal contact with the marly float
breccia, the sandy strata are still deformed and include
thin pelitic interbeds with gypsum ghosts (Fig. 8c,e).
Thrombolites occurring at the top point to similarity
with TCC successions in the Nijar area (Riding et al.,
1991a). To the N of Barranco del Pino up to 25 m
thick and SE prograding, coarse clastics overly both
the youngest reefal Halimeda bed and laterally also
marly float breccias. These clastic deposits consist of
low angle (f 15j) SE prograding alternations of very
coarse and angular basement debris embedded in a
sandy matrix and sandier intervals. Stromatolites and
occasionally fossiliferous flat pebble beds occur at the
base. The composition of the clastics reflects the
lithology of the nearby Sierra Alhamilla and its reefal
fringe. Large Porites blocks occur at various levels.
Evidently, it concerns a small prograding clastic
wedge, which partly filled-up an erosional depression
in between the reefs and flowed out in front of the
reefs in a coastal area.
Summarizing and concluding, it appears that evap-
orites were deposited on the deepest parts of the reefal
clinoforms and distally above sandy Abad marls.
Simultaneously, oolithic grainstones were deposited
in a somewhat shallower position. These grainstones
were partly reworked and can now be retrieved more
to the basin centre in the younger part of the for-
mation. The preserved beds of the Oolite Member
have been deposited in a topographic position still
under the highest parts of the Cantera reef. Above the
gypsum, sandstones have been deposited which show
a high similarity with the Sorbas Member. The
approximately coeval coarse clastic prograding fan
points to a relatively short-lived, regressive event
capable to scour a valley in between the reefal tract,
filling it up with clastics. We correlate this event with
the erosional event affecting the Upper Yesares further
eastward which is also related to dissolution, collapse
plus basinward sliding.
5. Sedimentation of the latest Messinian
Lago–Mare facies (Feos Formation)
The latest episode of the MSC is very well repre-
sented in the Nijar Basin and provides one of the most
complete onshore records of the western Mediterra-
nean. The corresponding sediments belong to the Feos
Formation that comprises the strata deposited above
the Mn-enrichment level and below the Pliocene (Van
de Poel, 1991). The most complete stratigraphic
record of the Feos Formation is present in sections
near Gafares (Sections E and D; Figs. 2, 9 and 10f),
where the formation is conformably overlain by
fossiliferous Pliocene sandy marls (Cuevas Forma-
tion, Fig. 10a). Towards the basin margin in the west
and the Carboneras fault zone in the east, the Feos
Formation becomes incomplete due to onlapping and
thinning or erosion prior to deposition of the over-
lying Pliocene (Fig. 11).
5.1. The regular basinal successions
In the central parts of the Nijar Basin, the Feos
Formation shows a distinct cyclic alternation of vari-
coloured (reddish to greyish) continental clastics and
whitish Lago–Mare deposits (Fig. 10f,j). The latter
intervals are characterized by an oligohaline micro-
fauna occurring in marly to chalky sediment but
including varying amounts of usually thin bedded
and well-sorted sands and silts (laminites). A total
Fig. 8. Photographs illustrating the Oolite Member (TCC equivalent) at the NW basin margin. (a) Displaced Porites blocks overgrown by
stromatolites (hammer for scale). (b) Barranco del Pino, eastern part (hammer for scale). Oolitic grainstone block with gypsum pseudomorphs
reworked into a mass flow deposit forming the local transition between chaotic dissolution and collapse float breccia to sandstones shown in (d)
forming the base of the Feos Formation (hammer for scale). (c and e) Barranco del Pino, western outcrops (pen for scale). Close-ups of
deformed sandy strata, here forming the transition between chaotic dissolution and collapse float breccia to oolithic sandstones of the Oolite
Member (coin of 1.5 cm diameter for scale). The basal mudstone bed includes gypsum pseudomorphs.
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A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242226
number of eight Lago–Mare intervals have been
distinguished (Fig. 9). These intervals alternate in the
lower part of the formation with intervals dominated
by graded and laminated gypsum-rich sandstones and/
or balatino gypsum and higher up with continental
clastics (varying from clays to conglomerates). Terres-
trial environments can be concluded from the common
presence of red and grey calcrete-rich paleosols and/or
root burrowing. Coarse clastic intervals are common
(Fig. 10c). The formation shows an upward change to
decreasing influence of saline waters within the overall
cyclic pattern caused by wet Lago–Mare and dry
evaporitic to continental intervals.
The cyclic arrangement of continental clastics and
Lago–Mare laminites indicates that the basin under-
went alternating periods of drying-up and reflooding.
The lowermost cycles, however, only give evidence
for drying up in the marginal areas where erosion of
Messinian and older strata has been significant. The
continental episodes lasted long enough to enable the
development of calcretic soils that were often inter-
rupted by episodic supply of coarse-grained debris
flows. The conformable transition to the Pliocene is
characterized (Sections D and G, Figs. 9 and 10a) by
an abrupt change in lithology, from non-fossiliferous,
greyish, silty sands showing mottling by plant roots to
strongly burrowed bioclastic sandy marls containing
an open marine microfauna (Van de Poel, 1992).
Burrows penetrated up to 50 cm deep into the under-
lying Feos Formation. Since these marine Pliocene
strata overlie the relatively thin continental interval (of
cycle 8), it is concluded that the Pliocene flooding
followed abruptly after a period of lowered water
levels.
The vertical transition from Lago–Mare facies to
continental clastics is generally rather abrupt (Fig. 10j)
and can even be erosional in case the overlying clastic
unit consists of conglomerates displaying scour-and-
fill structures. When the transition is gradational, the
amount of sand increases rapidly upward resulting in
both thickening and coarsening-up patterns, indicating
shoaling (hummocky cross-bedding may be devel-
oped) and rapid transition to terrestrial conditions with
all the features of deposition on braid plains, develop-
ment of soils (calcretic) and episodic overwash.
The transitions from continental intervals to Lago–
Mare beds are abrupt as well, but generally not ero-
sional. The Lago–Mare intervals of the upper cycles
start with a conspicuous 1–2 cm grey, clayey drape,
extremely rich in the ostracod Cyprideis agrigentina.
This sudden ‘transgression’ points to relatively rapid
and quiet flooding without (or with only very poorly
developed) ravinement surfaces and shoreface deposits.
Micropaleontological investigations of the various
Lago–Mare intervals reveal that the ostracod assemb-
lages are dominated by Cyprideis pannonica, although
Loxoconcha and Tyrrhenocythere (Roep and Van
Harten, 1979; Van de Poel, 1991, 1992) are also
present. Some Cyprideis-rich samples also contain a
dwarfed planktonic foraminiferal association with or
without an oligotypic small-sized association of
Ammonia spp. and Bolivina spp., which is similar to
the Lago–Mare associations from elsewhere in Med-
iterranean basins (cf. Iaccarino et al., 1999). SEM
investigations of these samples show that micrite from
disintegrated and probably reworked calcareous nan-
nofossils forms a relevant part of the sediment (Fig.
10h). In addition, washed residues from Lago–Mare
fines include frequently celestite crystals (Fig. 10g), of
which the corroded nature also suggests reworking. A
few samples from the uppermost part of the formation
yield a more marine, plankton-rich association, but also
in these cases, faunal reworking cannot be ruled out
(W.J. Zachariasse, personal communication).
A gradual change in both the composition of the
lithoclasts and paleocurrent orientation can be noted
from west to east. In the western outcrops, the overall
paleocurrent trend is to SE; southern transport direc-
tions prevail in the intermediate sections, whereas
SSW to W-directed transport is indicated in the
Collado del Manco area close to the Carboneras fault
zone. The most common lithoclasts consist of
reworked gypsum, oolites, Cantera limestones, other
types of Messinian limestones and metamorphics
Fig. 9. Simplified and correlated lithological logs of the cyclic facies association in the Feos Formation expressed by repetitions of coarser and
finer, often laminitic, intervals. The sections (A–F) are located between the ruined houses of Los Feos and the Collado del Manco (see Fig. 2 for
location). The base of the Pliocene has been used as a datum surface for correlation. The formation attained its largest thickness in Section G
(Cerro de los Ranchos; 110 m, upper part shown in Fig. 10f). Further eastward from there, the Pliocene starts to overly the formation with an
(low angle) erosional unconformity related to activity of the Carboneras fault zone.
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A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242228
(dark phyllites and dolomites, angular white quart-
sites). In the Collado del Manco area, however, frag-
ments derived from red sandstones belonging to the
Malaga–Betic nappe and volcanites appear in the
lower part of the formation, indicating supply from
a different sediment source probably located east of
the Carboneras fault zone.
5.2. Basal gypsum-bearing successions
The three lower cycles of the Feos Formation are
still characterized by the abundance of (often
reworked) gypsum (Fig. 10e). NE of Los Feos (Sec-
tions B and C, Fig. 9), the relationship between the
Yesares and Feos gypsum is complicated by the
presence of an erosional unconformity (Fig. 6c). The
overlying gypsum conglomerates are correlated with
the uppermost gypsarenites of the Yesares UML fur-
ther east. The Mn-enrichment level marking the Yes-
ares–Feos boundary is positioned just southward from
these strata. Towards the basin margin, contacts with
collapsed and olistostrome-like Yesares point to a
gradual transition from highly chaotic Yesares float
breccias via crudely stratified massflow deposits to
whitish Feos sandstone and conglomerates. Here, the
Lago–Mare intervals include a higher amount of
interbedded graded sandstones than further east (Sec-
tions G and H, Fig. 9), where laminated gyparenites
and balatino gypsum form the lateral equivalents of
westward coarsening units also rich in detrital gypsum.
Selenitic gypsum is locally developed as circular,
up to 1 m elevated, mounds (‘teepees’) measuring up
Fig. 11. Interpreted W–E stratigraphic cross-section through the northern Nijar Basin with the base of the Pliocene as datum level. Lithological
symbols as used in Fig. 9.
Fig. 10. Photographs illustrating the Feos Formation. (a) Details of contact with the Pliocene, Section D. The contact (arrow) is marked by the
sudden transition from greyish, root mottled and vaguely bedded continental strata to yellowish, strongly burrowed bioclastic calcarenites.
Pocket knife for scale. (b) Proximity of Section C: gypsum mound (‘teepee’) developed on top of a graded gypsrudite forming the transition to
laminitic Lago–Mare deposits of cycle 4 (Fig. 9) that can be seen to onlap over this mini relief. Hammer for scale. (c) Section B, southeastward
slumped sandstones intercalated in laminitic strata of cycle 4 (Fig. 9). The outcrop clearly shows that laminites onlapped over the slumped sands
and were subsequently erosively overlain by conglomeratic mass-flow deposits forming the transition to the next continental interval. (d and j)
Proximity of Section C: Lago–Mare interval 4 (7.5 m thick) developed on top of an undulating gypsrudite (bottom photo, j) and showing a
gradual upward increase of laminitic sandy interbeds. At the top where the number of graded sands increases rapidly, over 1 m long subvertical
fissures are present that appear to be filled-in from above from places where sand became fluidized (photo d, upper right) and interpreted as
giving evidence for a seismic origin. (e) Section B, interval above the basal gypsum conglomerates showing laminated and contorted fine-
grained gypsarenites. (f) Section C, as seen from the east, showing the alternation of Lago–Mare cycles with coarser grained, mostly
continental, sandy–conglomeratic intervals. The picture starts, at right, at the level of the manganese-enriched boundary bed where it is
followed by fine-grained and laminated ‘balatino’ gypsum. (g) SEM backscatter image of a celestite crystal (� 250) common in Lago–Mare
fines. The corroded surface suggests reworking. (h) SEM micrograph of Lago–Mare mud (� 8000) showing the relative importance of
reworked and fragmented nannofossils. (k) Proximity of Section C, thinly bedded and laminated grey to pink pelitic to sandy strata including
irregular gypsiferous beds showing small teepee-like structures and interpreted as deposited in a sabkha-like environment.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 229
to 3 m in diameter (Fig. 10b). They are common in the
western barranco’s (top of cycle 3, Sections B, C and
D, Fig. 9), following above up to 50 cm thick,
laminated gypsarenite, including outsize clasts of
reworked gypsum or Cantera coral boundstone. In
the neighbourhood of Section D just below the top of
cycle 3, a sabkha-like gypsum variety is developed,
overlying muds and sands with large root burrows.
The gypsum is banded, forming irregular, small tee-
pee-like elevations (Fig. 10k). Intercalated clastic beds
vary laterally in texture and structure and include
wave-ripple cross-lamination. The selenitic gypsum
mounds at the top are directly followed by the first
Lago–Mare laminites of cycle 4. This facies pinches
out eastwards and graded gypsarenites or balatino
gypsum is found east of Gafares.
Concluding, an upward change is evident from
partly evaporitic cycles to partly continental cycles.
Because the Lago–Mare intervals do not show marked
upward changes, this vertical trend suggests increased
evaporative drawdown during the younger cycles,
when continental environments prevailed during rela-
tively dry intervals. Geochemical investigations (Lu et
al., 2001) confirm the more continental character of the
Feos evaporites compared to Yesares evaporites, in
which more isolated environments provided more
concentrated brines. The environments in the Feos
area were on average shallower than E of Gafares,
where the relative amount of coarse clastics is lower
versus increased amounts of balatino gypsum and
gypsarenites. Features such as observed in the mixed
clastic–evaporitic facies near Section D, cycle 3 sug-
gest that sabkha-like environments associated with
salty mudflats and mangrove vegetation existed
locally, indicating rapidly vertically and horizontally
changing facies patterns. Abundance of outsize clasts
in the mass transported sandy evaporites points to
considerable erosion of marginal gypsum. In view of
the evidence for periodic drawdown of the water level
leading to accumulation of continental deposits above
otherwise offshore facies, fluctuations of Lago–Mare
water levels were considerable.
5.3. Fissure fillings
Coarse sand-filled fissures, pointing downward
towards the top of the laminites, are a remarkable
feature of the upward coarsening–shallowing se-
quence of cycle 4. The fissures are up to 50 cm in
length in Section A, but can be up to 1 m in Section C.
In the latter locality (Fig. 10j), cracks can be seen to
pass at their top into the first graded sands, which
were locally subjected to liquefaction (Fig. 10d). This
indicates that the fissures were filled from above by
fluidized sand. The fissures, on average f 1 cm wide,
vary in shape from a slightly jagged to almost straight
course, and both vertical and oblique orientations are
common. The sand, filling the fissures at Los Feos,
however, is hardly present anymore as it was scoured
by an overlying graded bed. Here groove and flute
casts indicate transport to 170jS (13 measurements),
while Tc intervals of very thin distal turbidites indicate
S to SSE transport directions. In other outcrops of the
same cycle 4, slumping and small-scale syndeposi-
tional faulting is common (Figs. 9 and 10c).
The fissures are not interpreted as large shrinkage
cracks due to the drying up of a Lago–Mare succes-
sion, but as seismites, because fluidization of sand
with associated ‘draw-in’ infilling of fissures in
unconsolidated sediment indicates sediment stretching
by seismic shocks. Their association with slumps and
small-scale syndepositional faults also indicates tec-
tonic instability.
6. Paleogeographic evolution
6.1. Paleogeography during pre-evaporitic sedimen-
tation
The Late Tortonian was a period of intense basin
structuration during which the basin fill was folded
and faulted (Fig. 3). Along the southern margin of the
Sorbas Basin, dextral slip along the Gafarillos fault
came to an end and the Messinian depot centre shifted
northwards (Ott d’Estevou, 1980). The contours of the
Nijar Basin must have been influenced considerably
by the gradual NE movement of the Sierra de Gata
massif. Approximately 30 km of horizontal slip is
inferred to have taken place along the Carboneras
fault since the Tortonian, with an estimated 7.5 km of
Pliocene–Quaternary displacement (Coppier et al.,
1990; Boorsma, 1993). The more southern position
of the Cabo de Gata volcanics probably enabled a
joint eastward outlet to the offshore for the combined
Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins (Fig. 12.1). In Early
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242230
Messinian times, at least the Nijar and the Sorbas
basins were still connected to the deep Mediterranean,
as proven by fossil fish fauna’s (Gaudant, 1989). Even
the younger diatom assemblages from ‘‘Upper Abad’’
marls in the Sorbas Basin indicate a marine connec-
tion (Saint Martin et al., 2001). The northern shoreline
of the Nijar Basin probably coincided with the north-
ern margin of the Sorbas Basin. This is evidenced by
local accumulations of swash rounded megaboulders
(up to 1 m in diameter) at the base of the Azagador
transgression in various places along the northern
margin of the Sorbas Basin. Such boulders indicate
a high-energy swash, tormenting a rocky coast, which
is unlikely to have existed in a narrow basin that was
protected from the open sea to the south by the Sierra
Cabrera. Moreover, the stratigraphic trend of the
Azagador Member as exposed along the southeastern
margin of the Sorbas Basin is one of eastward
thickening and fining, suggesting also an open con-
nection to the present Vera Basin. Intercalated litho-
clasts in these sections reflect a northern, Sierra de los
Filabres origin, which also indicates that Sierra Cab-
rera was not yet emergent (Braga et al., 2001).
The western margin of the Nijar Basin was formed
by the Sierra Alhamilla topographic high which shed a
mixture of coarse clastics and bioclastics into the basin
well before it became covered by the Cantera reef trend
(Ott d’Estevou, 1980). The position of the northwestern
basin margin during deposition of the Early–Middle
Messinian Abad marls is clearly indicated by the reefal
tract of Cantera carbonates fringing Sierra Alhamilla
(Figs. 1 and 2). The almost uninterrupted reef trend
from Sierra Alhamilla, via Sierra de los Filabres to
Sierra Bedar (Fig. 12.1), implies that the Nijar, Sorbas
and Vera basins were still interconnected. Moreover,
the absence of Cantera reefs along Sierra Cabrera
strongly suggests that massif was still submerged, an
interpretation which deviates from earlier paleogeo-
graphic and fault kinematic maps (De la Chapelle,
1988; Coppier et al., 1990). In addition, the open
marine Abad successions N and S of the present
Cabrera massif are strikingly similar in microfaunal
and lithological aspect. This indicates similar upper
bathyal environments (Troelstra et al., 1980; Van de
Poel, 1992), suggesting as well that much of the present
Sierra Cabrera was still a basinal part of the intercon-
nected Vera, Sorbas and Nijar basins. Recent paleoba-
thymetric estimates based on extensive study of the
benthic foraminifera (Baggley, 2000) indicate that the
deepest parts of the Sorbas Basin may have attained
f 1000 m after the initial phase of rapid subsidence.
The regular, and laterally persistent, depositional
pattern of the ‘‘Lower Abad’’ marls points to an
episode of tectonic quiescence. This suggests that
during the Azagador–‘‘Lower Abad’’ episode, trans-
pressional stresses were strongly reduced, thus induc-
ing subsidence in zones of former compression.
During deposition of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’, turbidites
and slumps in the Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins
periodically disturbed the regular depositional pattern
pointing to increased tectonic instability. This could
well be related with the initiation of the new N–S
oriented principal stress regime that first affected the
Palomares fault. Activity along this fault is indicated
by the occurrence of small volcanic eruption centres in
the Vera Basin, intercalated in the so-called Santiago
turbidites of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ (Volk, 1967; Fortuin et
al., 1995). These Santiago turbidites accumulated in
bathyal parts of the basin, as proved by abundant
Palaeodictyon tracks being derived from northeastern
sources (Volk, 1967), suggesting that the south(west)-
ern parts of the Vera Basin were the deepest. This is
another indication that there was not yet a trace of an
extensive Cabrera landmass such as present nowadays.
Paleocurrent directions are rather scarce in the
‘‘Upper Abad’’ of the study area. Nevertheless, vari-
ous slumpfolds and a cross-bedded turbidite (Tc)
interval indicate eastward sediment dispersal, suggest-
ing transport towards the eastern offshore.
6.2. Paleogeography during evaporite deposition
The basal Yesares evaporites of the Nijar and
Sorbas basins probably still formed an integral basinal
succession like before in mid-Messinian times (Fig.
12.2). Initially, the connection to the Vera Basin was
probably still open. In that basin, evaporites probably
were deposited as well, but little has remained because
of post-depositional erosion (Fortuin et al., 1995).
Separation of the Sorbas and Vera basins was prob-
ably caused by a NE–SW trending, fault bounded
uplift zone. This is the area presently exposing the
older Neogene successions along the NW Cabrera
margin. The thickest (f 75 m) and most massive
appearance of Yesares evaporites in the Sorbas Basin
is located in the eastern segment of the basin, border-
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A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242232
ing the western spurs of Sierra Cabrera. The thickest
gypsum deposits in the Nijar Basin are observed in the
quarry directly to the south of this present structural
high. Splitting up of the formerly united Sorbas–
Nijar–Vera basins is thought to have started in Late
Yesares times, when the stratigraphies of the basins
started to diverge. Overall Yesares shoaling, inferred
from geochemical studies (Rosell et al., 1998), is
witnessed by the overlying coastal sequences around
Sorbas and southeastward proliferation of UML gyp-
sarenites in the study area. Consequently, this uplift
also started to constrict the Sorbas–Nijar connections.
In the study area, shoaling is proved by local erosion
of the main gypsum body in the Los Feos area and the
eastward transition to mixed calciclastic–gypsarenitic
turbidite lobes. In addition, coarse clastics could also
enter the basin from the western Alhamilla margin.
The most logical explanation for the supply of
reworked gypsum into the study area is uplift with
southward tilting along the northern boundary of the
Cabrera–Alhamilla sierras. In other words, reactiva-
tion of the Gafarillos fault zone now under N–S
compression seems likely.
In the study area, the overall upward increase of
detrital gypsum, plus local erosion towards the top of
the Yesares Fm, is undoubtedly related to the same
overall shallowing tendency recognized in the Sorbas
Basin. Whereas the basal Yesares gypsum formed in
deep marine brines (Rosell et al., 1998; Lu et al.,
2001), upward shallowing in the Sorbas Basin with
strong salinity fluctuations resulted in deposition of
the coastal sequences of the Sorbas Member on top of
the evaporites (Roep et al., 1998). This member shows
a prograding sandy coastal succession consisting of
3–4 upward shoaling sequences around the village of
Sorbas (Roep et al., 1998; Krijgsman et al., 2001).
Further east and south, these coastal sands pass
rapidly into laminitic offshore muds and sands in
which shoaling ultimately also led to the formation
of wave-rippled near-coastal strata. In the generally
deeper Nijar Basin, an overall regressive trend is also
reflected by the Upper Yesares beds with the appear-
ance of calciclastic strata and gypsarenites, here
developed as prograding fan lobes in four UML
sequences. The fact that both the UML and the Sorbas
members are the first sand-rich intervals suggests a
lateral relationship. Moreover, calcite coated sand-
stones are a common lithology in the Sorbas Member,
and they also occur in the UML sequences and in the
marginal sandstones directly overlying the marginal
dissolution facies. We thus conclude a lateral equiv-
alence of the Sorbas and UML members (Fig. 4),
which implies that episodes of increasing salinity had
more impact in the somewhat deeper Nijar Basin than
in Sorbas.
The dominantly marly, laminitic intervals at the top
of the UML reflect brackish conditions as unambig-
uously proven by microfauna (Van de Poel, 1994) and
presence of Chara spp. plus A. crassicaudus (De la
Chapelle and Gaudant, 1987). The latter fish is also
reported from the basinal Sorbas laminites (Gaudant
and Ott d’Estevou, 1985) and typically thrives in
euryhaline, near coastal waters. The lack of other
marine fish species, however, indicates that the basins
were separated from open marine environments (Gau-
dant, 1989). This exemplifies the increased restriction
of the Nijar and Sorbas basins from the Mediterra-
nean, which ultimately resulted in the first hypohaline
Lago–Mare conditions.
6.3. Paleogeography during Lago–Mare deposition
Paleogeographic reconstructions based on the
study of continental facies in the Sorbas Basin and
Fig. 12. Paleogeographic cartoons depicting the rapid overall changing configuration of the Neogene basins in SE Spain between 6.4 and 5.2
Ma. Fault patterns and fault kinematically restored position of fault blocks after Coppier et al. (1990). Map 1 shows the approximate basin
contours at the onset of late Abad time when the Cantera reefs started to fringe the basin margin. In Yesares time (map 2), evaporites
accumulated in the deeper parts and in the course of this episode faulting along the northern margin of Sierra Alhamilla and continuing eastward
caused initial uplift in the present Sierra Cabrera area. As a result, erosion and reworking of evaporites into the now separately evolving Nijar
Basin took place. Map 3 shows the maximum distribution of hyposaline Lago–Mare distribution for the Sorbas Basin based on Mather (2001).
Indicated are transport directions and areas where evaporite dissolution, collapse and subsequent lateral transport took place. Map 4 depicts the
basin configuration shortly after the early Pliocene flooding. Open marine strata were deposited in the central parts of the Nijar, Vera and Agua
Amarga basins. Increased activity took place along the Carbonera fault zone together with regional uplift responsible for considerable shoaling
in the course of the Pliocene. Sierra Cabrera only then gradually obtained its modern topography and the seaway between the Agua Amarga and
Nijar basins was closed.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 233
the Sorbas–Nijar corridor in the Polopos area (Ma-
ther, 1993a,b, 2001) indicate that the NW Nijar Basin
was still connected to the Sorbas Basin during the
latest Messinian–Early Pliocene, despite tectonic
activity occurring along the Sierra Alhamilla–Sierra
Cabrera faults (Fig. 3). The post-evaporitic continental
unit of the Sorbas Basin (Zorreras Member) contains
only two brackish Lago–Mare incursions (Ott d’Es-
tevou, 1980) on a total of eight sedimentary cycles of
alternating reddish silts and yellowish sands (Krijgs-
man et al., 2001). This suggests that only the highest
Lago–Mare water levels were able to penetrate into
the Sorbas Basin, leaving the latter basin dominantly
continental. Such a scenario also fits well with the
decreasing significance of the Lago–Mare facies to
the northwestern margin of the Nijar Basin. Hence,
the number of cycles in the Zorreras Member corre-
lates very well with the eight sedimentary cycles of
the Feos Formation. This strongly suggests that the
Zorreas Member (excluded its Pliocene top bed) and
the Feos Formation are lateral equivalents. Details of
syn-Zorreras facies distribution are given by Mather
(2001), who explains the Zorreras lacustrine incur-
sions in the Sorbas Basin as a result of variations in
the overall vertical uplift. Climatologically con-
strained shifts in the position of the coastline, how-
ever, seem more likely, especially regarding the
Lago–Mare lake-level fluctuations. The large a-
mounts of reworked Alpujarrid basement schists,
quartsites and older basinal deposits can be explained
as a result of periodically falling base level. The
indications for seismic shocks or the changes in the
overall direction of sediment transport from SE to S–
SSW orientations suggest that next to periodic evap-
orative drawdown also tectonic uplift of Sierra Cab-
rera must have played a role. In general, differential
uplift of the two basins is the most logical explanation
for the more continental character of the Zorreras
deposits of the Sorbas Basin.
At the onset of the Early Pliocene transgression,
the Nijar Basin became again an open marine basin in
which thick marine successions were widely depos-
ited (Fig. 12.4). The marine Pliocene in the Sorbas
Basin, however, is restricted to a 1 m thin veneer of
shallow marine sands (Ott d’Estevou, 1980) followed
by exclusively fluvial strata. Comparison of the topo-
graphic position of the basal Pliocene in both basins N
and S of Sierra Cabrera also suggests ongoing differ-
ential uplift. The oldest shallow marine Pliocene of
the Sorbas Basin (as observed at Cortijo El Cerro
Colorado) is presently elevated 450 m and with a
paleobathymetry not exceeding 20 m, this indicates a
minimum average rate of Plio–Quaternary uplift of
f 90 mm/ka. In contrast, the basal Pliocene of the
Nijar Basin (around Gafares) was deposited at 100–
150-m depth (outer shelf depths, Van de Poel, 1992)
and with a present elevation of f 250 m, the average
rate of Plio–Quaternary uplift has been in the order of
70 mm/ka.
The gradual emergence of both Nijar and Sorbas
basins was caused by regional uplift, which probably
also controlled the lateral variations in depositional
environment of the latest Messinian. An important
W–E change can be noted in the composition of the
lithoclasts of the Feos Formation, which indicates
supply from different sediment sources. This is fur-
thermore supported by paleocurrent measurements
indicating SE transport directions near the western
basin margin, S directions in the intermediate sections
and W to SW directed transport in the east. The Feos
Formation is not (or only poorly) developed east of
the Carboneras Fault. There, the basal Pliocene
directly overlies float breccias of collapsed and trans-
ported evaporitic Yesares strata. The entry of volcani-
clastics in the Feos Formation at the easternmost part
of the study area strongly suggests supply from the
‘incoming’ and uprising Cabo de Gata block, thus for
the first time demonstrating uplift along the Carbone-
ras fault.
Faulting and anticlinal warping in the Sierra Cab-
rera area had gradually cutoff the mutual passages
between the Nijar and Sorbas basins during the
Pliocene–Quaternary. Nowadays, the Rambla de
Lucainena, Rio Alias and Arroyo Gafares drainage
systems are transverse systems crossing this topo-
graphic high, initiated in Early Pliocene time after
definitive withdrawal of the sea from the Sorbas Basin
(Mather, 1993b). With regard to the Late Messinan
episodes of considerably shifting coastlines, however,
we suggest that the initial drainage pattern already
developed in Late Messinian time prior to the main
uplift of Sierra Cabrera. Tectonic uplift of Sierra
Cabrera is interpreted to have also played a role in
the formation of the angular unconformity separating
the Yesares and Feos Formations in the western part
of the study area. Ongoing tectonic activity is fur-
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242234
thermore required to explain the position of the Early
Pliocene deposits which not only overlie the Feos
formation unconformably towards the western basin
margin but also towards the Serrata strike-slip fault
zone. The study area therefore can be reconstructed
using the base of the Pliocene as a datum level (Fig.
11). Compared to the WSW and ENE margins, the
central parts underwent net subsidence which resulted
in ongoing sedimentation and deposition of a fairly, if
not most complete, record of Late Messinian deposi-
tional environments with a high potential for compar-
ison with other Late Messinian successions.
7. Discussion
The Nijar Basin contains one of the most complete
land-based Messinian successions of the Mediterra-
nean mainly because tectonic uplift of the surrounding
basement complexes during the MSC has protected its
sediments from vigorous erosion. Consequently, the
Nijar Basin became a semi-enclosed basin during the
latest Messinian in which a substantial body of
evaporites and post-evaporitic deposits has accumu-
lated despite drastic changes in environment and
water level. The Nijar Basin has occupied a less
restricted position than the neighbouring and well-
studied Sorbas Basin, and as such, these sediments are
very suitable to increase our understanding of Late
Messinian paleoceanographic changes.
7.1. Chronology
Late Miocene sedimentation in the Nijar Basin
started with deposition of the Azagador Member, a
transgressive unit of mixed bio-siliciclastics. Biostrati-
graphic data indicate that the Azagador Member is
entirely of Late Tortonian age, but more accurate age
constraints are not available. The Azagador/Abad
transition straddles the Tortonian/Messinian boundary
as the first regular occurrence of the G. miotumida
group is observed in the basal part of the Abad marls
(Sierro et al., 2001). Time control for the Abad
Member has recently been considerably improved
by magnetostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and espe-
cially cyclostratigraphic dating (Gautier et al., 1994;
Krijgsman et al., 1999; Sierro et al., 2001). A high-
resolution integrated stratigraphy has been developed
for the Abad marls, based on numerous sections in
both the Nijar and Sorbas basins (Sierro et al., 2001).
Astronomical tuning of the sedimentary cyclicity of
the Abad marls to the insulation curve has provided
very accurate and reliable ages for all sedimentary
cycles and allows an unambiguous bed-to-bed corre-
lation to other astronomically dated sections in the
Mediterranean. The resulting astrochronological age
for the base of the Abad Member is 7.24 Ma, while
the transition from ‘‘Lower Abad’’ to ‘‘Upper Abad’’
arrived at 6.70 Ma (Krijgsman et al., 1999; Sierro et
al., 2001).
Astrochronology furthermore revealed that the
onset of evaporite precipitation in the Nijar Basin
took place at an age of 5.96 Ma, approximately four
cycles above paleomagnetic reversal C3An.1n, syn-
chronous with the Sorbas Basin and other astronom-
ically dated sections of both west and east
Mediterranean basins (Krijgsman et al., 1999, 2001,
2002). Biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic
techniques are, however, not very useful for dating
the latest Messinian sequences of the Messinian
Salinity Crisis because these are confined to a single
magnetic chron and lack age diagnostic planktonic
foraminifera. As a consequence, we will have to rely
on cyclostratigraphic (and radiometric) data to derive
age constraints for the top of the Yesares and the end
of marine sedimentation in the Nijar Basin. Cyclo-
stratigraphic studies of the Yesares Formation in the
Nijar Basin are, however, complicated by the consid-
erable lateral changes, the erosional unconformities,
the common dissolution and collapse phenomena and
the various diagenetic alterations. Sections W and E of
Gafares are probably the best candidates to establish a
complete cyclostratigraphic framework for the Yes-
ares Formation in the future, but they will require an
additional very detailed geochemical or sediment
petrological study. Field evidence from both the
Sorbas and Nijar basins indicates that the marl–
sapropel cycles of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ are at their
top replaced by gypsum–sapropel cycles of the Yes-
ares, indicating that the evaporite cyclicity is related to
astronomical (precession) controlled oscillations in
(circum) Mediterranean climate as well. Unfortu-
nately, the tuning of the Yesares cycles to the astro-
nomical curves was less straightforward because
characteristic cycle patterns could not be resolved.
Upward calibration of the gypsum cycles resulted in
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 235
an age of 5.67 Ma for the top of the Yesares (Krijgs-
man et al., 2001). The recognition of sedimentary
cycles in the Sorbas Member is even more compli-
cated as deposition took place in a highly dynamic
near-coastal environment, although 3–4 distinct
shoaling-up sequences are present (Roep et al.,
1998). Nevertheless, a best estimate for the end of
marine sedimentation in the Sorbas Basin was derived
at an age between 5.60 and 5.54 Ma (Krijgsman et al.,
2001). Based on our paleogeographic reconstructions,
which show a similar evolution of the Sorbas and
Nijar basins during the latest Messinian, we can
confidently assume that these age constraints are also
valid for the Nijar Basin.
The latest Messinian Feos Member includes eight
sedimentary cycles (including the first LM interval
just below this unit) which are interpreted as ‘‘wet–
dry’’ alternations. This number agrees well with the
eight sedimentary cycles that are present in the Zor-
reras Formation of the Sorbas Basin, in the ‘‘Upper
Evaporites’’ of the Caltanissetta Basin in Sicily and in
the Colombacci Formation of the Northern Apennines
(Decima and Wezel, 1973; Colalongo et al., 1976;
Rouchy, 1976; Krijgsman et al., 2001). It suggests that
these units, which all contain the characteristic Lago–
Mare facies, are deposited in the same time interval
bounded by Mediterranean-wide events. The upper
boundary is clearly related to the reestablishment of
marine conditions in the Mediterranean during the
Pliocene flooding, which is astronomically dated to
have occurred at an age of 5.33 Ma (Lourens et al.,
1996). The age estimate of 5.60–5.54 Ma for the base
of the Feos is in good agreement with Ar/Ar ages of
5.40F 0.06 and 5.51F 0.05 Ma for the volcanic ash
layer at the base of post-evaporitic unit in the North-
ern Apennines (Odin et al., 1997). Hence, it can be
concluded that the sedimentary cyclicity in the Feos
Member is dominantly related to circum-Mediterra-
nean climate changes driven by changes in the Earth’s
precession. This results in a total duration of approx-
imately 175 ky for the post-evaporitic unit in the Nijar
Basin.
7.2. Yesares formation in a Mediterranean context
Messinian astrochronology suggests that the onset
of evaporite precipitation during the MSC was per-
fectly synchronous over the entire Mediterranean
basin and therefore independent of the paleogeo-
graphic and geodynamic setting of the individual
basins (Krijgsman et al., 1999). During Late Messi-
nian times, the Nijar Basin was still connected to the
Mediterranean in the east and to the Sorbas Basin
through on open marine gateway over the present
Sierra Cabrera Massif. Consequently, the onset of the
massive primary evaporites of the basal Yesares For-
mation in Nijar is synchronous with the Mediterra-
nean-wide onset of the MSC as also shown by
astronomical tuning of the underlying Abad marls
(Sierro et al., 2001). The evaporitic succession of
the Yesares Formation progressively wedges out
towards the basin margin where it merges into a
chaotic mass where collapse and sliding took place,
including deposits of the Oolite Member. The pres-
ence of stromatolites, thrombolites and Porites blocks
points to similarity of TCC successions in the Nijar
area and Sorbas Basin (Riding et al., 1991b). In the
Sorbas Basin, not only a lateral relationship has been
shown to exist between oolites and part of the gypsum
(Conesa et al., 1999) but also with the Sorbas Member
(Dabrio and Polo, 1995; Roep et al., 1998). This
suggests that the TCC unit is indeed the lateral,
marginal, equivalent of the Yesares evaporites and
the Mediterranean ‘‘Lower Evaporites’’ and not as
originally defined on Mallorca as the lateral equiva-
lent of the ‘‘Upper Evaporites’’ (Esteban et al., 1977;
Esteban, 1979; Dronkert, 1985). Magnetostratigraphic
and radiometric dating of other TCC units in the
Alboran domain also agree with this older age. In
the Cabo de Gata region of southeast Spain (Franseen
et al., 1998; Montgomery et al., 2001) and in the
Melilla Basin of northeast Morocco (Cunningham et
al., 1994), the base of the TCC was magnetostrati-
graphically determined to occur slightly above the top
of the normal chron C3An.1n which corresponds to an
age slightly younger than 6 Ma (recalibrated to the
latest time scale). In addition, radiometric datings on a
volcanic ash layer slightly below the base of the TCC
in Melilla give Ar/Ar ages of 5.95F 0.10 Ma (Cun-
ningham et al., 1996) and recalculated as 6.01F 0.10
Ma by Munch et al. (2001).
Dissolution-affected successions are a very charac-
teristic feature of the Yesares Formation of the Nijar
Basin. Dissolution is mainly restricted to the basin
margin and to some local occurrences in the basin
centre; an archetype of these is the exposure along
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242236
Arroyo Gafares (Fig. 6). Because the latter occurren-
ces are directly overlain by intervals with first evi-
dence for at least temporary presence of brackish
water mass in the basin, this dissolution event can
be linked to fundamental changes in the hydrologic
budget. Such changes are in agreement with dolomi-
tization studies in the Nijar marginal reef deposits
showing that most dolomitization occurred during and
possibly after TCC deposition but before the Pliocene
during multiple sealevel changes (Meyers et al., 1997;
Lu and Meyers, 1998). Circulation of Mg through the
platform rocks was primarily driven by buoyant
circulation of the mixing zone beneath freshwater
lenses. Field observations show that evaporite disso-
lution is a less common feature in the Sorbas Basin,
where it is only locally concentrated at the southern
margin. A solution for this striking difference could be
the more restricted Late Messinian character of this
basin, with only partial flooding by hypohaline Lago–
Mare waters.
In general, the MSC shows an overall effect of
increasing isolation of the Mediterranean culminating
with deposition of the Lago–Mare facies. Therefore,
it is most logical to expect maximum draw down
during intervals of total isolation, which is during
Lago–Mare time. The exact age for the end of open
marine sedimentation in the Nijar Basin and hence in
the Mediterranean is, however, still uncertain. Astro-
nomical tuning of the upper part of the marine
sequences is hampered both in the Nijar and Sorbas
basins by the presence of less suitable sediments.
Moreover, we cannot neglect the influence of obliq-
uity forcing for this specific time interval, which
corresponds to a minimum in the f 400 ky eccen-
tricity cycle (Krijgsman et al., 2001). Nevertheless,
our best estimates for the end of marine sedimentation
arrive between 5.60 and 5.54 Ma. This is in agreement
with recent Ar/Ar ages from the Melilla Basin which
indicate that no major sea-level fall took place before
5.77 Ma (Cornee et al., 2002).
7.3. Feos regressive–transgressive cyclicity
In earlier studies, Mediterranean-wide evidence has
been gathered indicating a Late Messinian episode
with strongly lowered base-level and associated scour-
ing of deep channels and other erosion phenomena,
causing a prolonged disturbance of the natural equi-
librium between erosion and deposition (Delrieu et al.,
1993; Clauzon et al., 1996; Cita et al., 1999). Our
sedimentary observations on the Feos record, how-
ever, suggest that the overwhelming erosional effects
in places of much sediment bypass must have been
caused by repetitions of large, but relatively short,
base level fluctuations. Together with strongly re-
stricted oceanic connections, precession-controlled
periods of alternating relatively dry (negative water-
balance) and relatively wet (positive water balance)
conditions dominantly determine the Upper Messinian
sedimentary patterns. Due to differential uplift from
the end of the Yesares evaporitic episode onwards, the
Nijar Basin became in a less restricted position with
regard to open connections to the Mediterranean than
the neighbouring Sorbas Basin. Consequently, the
Nijar successions have a more pronounced Lago–
Mare facies and therefore provide an even better
Upper Messinian record.
One of the most interesting aspects of the Feos
Formation is the cyclic arrangement of offshore
Lago–Mare laminites and continental strata. This
pattern is similar to some lacustrine series in which
fluctuating lake levels are controlled by climatic
oscillations causing rapid transgressive–regressive
sequences. The lack of coastal barrier development
and the evidence for sudden drowning of the con-
tinental environment also fits in this analogy. Initially,
brackish waters and hypersaline intervals alternated,
whereas the basin floor fell dry later. These changes
suggest an increase in the fluctuation of water level
draw down. This is also indicated by reconstructed
relative sea level fluctuations just before the onset of
the Lago–Mare episode. During deposition of the
Sorbas Member (Roep et al., 1998), respectively the
TCC of the Cabo de Gata massif (Franseen et al.,
1998), sea level fluctuations were estimated to have
been in the order of up to 30 m. In the Nijar Basin, the
Lago–Mare water levels must have fluctuated over at
least 100 m/cycle when compared to the conformably
overlying Early Pliocene strata, which reflect deposi-
tion in open marine waters of at least 100-m depth.
The Feos water level fluctuations may have been
much smaller in case the average Lago–Mare water
levels were far under normal sealevel. Field data,
however, suggest that this was not necessarily true.
The presence of Lago–Mare facies along the NW
basin margin (at equal altitude and on top of TCC
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 237
oolites) indicates that Lago–Mare water levels at least
temporarily could equal previous sea levels. This is
especially interesting because data from the eastern
Mediterranean suggest the presence of lakes below the
world sea level (Orszag-Sperber et al., 2000). If true,
the Lago–Mare time might have been an episode of
enormously shifting coastlines caused by the waxing
and waning water supply. In addition, the strontium
isotope composition of Upper Messinian sequences in
central Sicily (Keogh and Butler, 1999) and west
Mediterranean basins (Tyrrenian Sea, Muller et al.,
1990; Vera Basin, Fortuin et al., 1995) is indistin-
guishable regardless of salinity, but different from
coeval oceanic water masses. This implies that the
local basins must have been linked to a main Medi-
terranean water mass that was isolated from the out-
side world. In theory, the oceanic gateways could be
temporarily flooded during periods of maximum sea
level and maximum continental runoff, automatically
reestablishing short-living connections. Such connec-
tions might also explain the sparse indications for
open marine microfaunas at the top of the Feos unit in
the Nijar Basin and elsewhere in the Mediterranean
(Spezzaferri, 1998; Iaccarino and Bossio, 1999).
However, reworking of the unstable Upper Messinan
sediments remains a factor not to be neglected.
7.4. Comparison with east Mediterranean basins
With more and more evidence indicating that not
only the beginning but also the end of the MSC were
pan-Mediterranean synchronous events (Di Stefano et
al., 1999; Iaccarino et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al.,
1999; Sierro et al., 2001; Krijgsman et al., 2002), it is
interesting to note that indeed striking similarities
exist between comparable east and west Mediterra-
nean successions. Especially, the Pissouri Basin of
Cyprus (Rouchy et al., 2001) is well comparable as it
too was moderately deep due to its position close to a
gradually rising hinterland and at the same time
connected to the offshore Mediterranean. Both the
Nijar and Pissouri successions show (1) an upward
transition from precipitated evaporites to reworked
evaporites. (2) Erosion and dissolution (including
the local formation of olistostrome like megabreccias)
affected the evaporites, which in both basins can be
attributed to the transition to oligohaline intervals. (3)
The basal Lago–Mare intervals still alternate with
hypersaline periods before these were replaced by
continental intervals. (4) Where conformable Mes-
sinan–Pliocene transitions can be found, it appears
that the Pliocene flooding occurred above a continen-
tal episode.
7.5. Pliocene transgression
Many new and unambiguous data indicate that the
flooding plus re-colonisation of the Mediterranean
basin floors by normal marine benthic organisms at
the base of the Pliocene was an abrupt and synchro-
nous pan-Mediterranean event (Di Stefano et al.,
1999; Iaccarino et al., 1999). Because the conform-
able Messinian–Pliocene transitions in the study area
are razor sharp, following above a continental inter-
val, we conclude that (a) flooding occurred almost
instantaneously, as also concluded by Pierre et al.
(1998) and Iaccarino et al. (1999) for other basins and
(b) that flooding terminated a relatively thin continen-
tal interval, which means that it concluded a relatively
dry period with lowered water levels.
8. Conclusions
During the Messinian, the existing open marine
connections between the Sorbas, Vera and Nijar
basins became progressively blocked (Fig. 12). All
three basins provide a gradually deviating, but well-
known record of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. The
Yesares and especially the Feos Formation of the Nijar
Basin provides important information concerning sig-
nificant, precession-controlled, base-level fluctua-
tions. The first oligohaline conditions, characteristic
of the Lago–Mare facies, occurred prior to the last
occurrence of evaporitic strata. Reworking of evapor-
ites in these intervals points both to strongly fluctuat-
ing base level and tectonic changes, related to uplift of
Sierra Cabrera, a massif nowadays separating the
Sorbas, Vera and Nijar basins. The Yesares succes-
sions of the Nijar Basin indicate that the turnover to
brackish environments initiated in various places,
especially near the basin margin, evaporite dissolu-
tion. Dissolution and collapse were able to trigger
localized sliding and slumping of stratal packets and
created olistostrome-like mass movement along tec-
tonically active faultzones in the NW of the basin.
A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242238
Sedimentological and cyclostratigraphical studies
on the Feos Formation indicate the presence of eight
precession cycles including hypohaline Lago–Mare
deposits, while the uppermost four include continental
deposits. These cycles can directly be correlated with
the Zorreras Member in the adjoining Sorbas Basin
and have been dated astrochronologically as deposited
between 5.52 and 5.33 Ma. During episodes of
strongly positive water budget, the Lago–Mare level
could reach the same position as the Yesares sea level
before, but water levels may have been considerably
lower during the continental phases. Correlation with
coeval strata in the Sorbas Basin, at that time, a more
elevated basin where only two Lago–Mare intervals
are developed, indicates that only the highest water
levels could still invade this basin. The sudden return
to open marine conditions at the onset of the Pliocene
closed such a continental episode of lowered water
level. Concerning the overall regional tectonic activ-
ity, tectonics were probably instrumental in the resto-
ration of an Atlantic gateway.
Strong similarities with other circum-Mediterra-
nean onshore basins substantiate the indications that
the transition to the Lago–Mare facies marks a pan-
Mediterranean event governed by precession-induced
changes in the subtle balance between dominantly
precipitation or evaporation in a largely isolated
Mediterranean. Finally, we conclude that instead of
one major downdrop event, it might have been the
repeatedly fluctuating water level during this latest
Messinian period which caused the widely reported
effects of locally vigorous erosion above the ‘‘Lower
Evaporites’’.
Acknowledgements
This paper is dedicated to the late Th. B. Roep,
with whom the senior author started the field
investigations. Especially former MSc. students
Frans-Bart Cornelisse, Arjan van Doorn, Eelco Felser
and Karin van der Zel are thanked for their
contribution to unravel parts of local Messinian
mysteries. Discussions in the field with colleagues
T. Geel, C. Dabrio, C. Taberner and W.J. Zachariasse
and constructive remarks by the reviewers J.M.
Rouchy and J.P. Saint Martin were greatly appreci-
ated. Technical and artistic assistance was provided by
S. Kars (SEM), M. Konert (sediment lab), H.A. Sion
and N. Schaefers (drafting). This work was conducted
under the programme of the Netherlands School of
Geosciences (NSG; paper nr 20021001) and the
Vening Meinesz Research School of Geodynamics
(VMSG). WK acknowledges financial support from
the Dutch research center for Integrated Solid Earth
Sciences (ISES).
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