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The Flapper• Flapper—emancipated young woman, adopts new fashions, attitudes• Many young women want equal status with men, become assertive• Middle-class men, women begin to see marriage as equal partnership- housework, child-rearing still woman’s job The Double Standard• Elders disapprove new behavior and its promotion by periodicals, ads• Casual dating begins to replace formal courtship• Women subject to double standard (less sexual freedom than men)- must observe stricter standards of behavior
New Work Opportunities• After war, employers replace female workers
with men• Female college graduates become teachers, nurses, librarians• Many women become clerical workers as demand rises• Some become sales clerks, factory workers• Few become managers; always paid less than men
The Changing Family• Birthrate drops partly due to more birth-control information• Manufactured products, public services give homemakers
freedom• Housewives can focus more on families, pastimes, not
housework• Marriages increasingly based on romantic love, companionship• Children spend most of day at school, organized activities
- adolescents resist parental control• Working-class, college-educated women juggle family, work School Enrollments• High school population increases dramatically in 1920s due to:
- prosperity- higher standards for industry jobs
• Pre-1920s, high school for college-bound students• In 1920s, high schools also offer vocational training• Public schools prepare immigrant children who speak no English• School taxes increase as school costs rise sharply
Expanding News Coverage• Mass media shapes mass culture; takes
advantage of greater literacy• By 1914, hundreds of local newspapers
replaced by national chains
Radio Comes of Age• Radio is most powerful communications
medium of 1920s• Networks provide shared national experience • - can hear news as it happens• 1920s, mass-market magazines thrive;
Reader’s Digest, Time founded
New-Found Leisure Time• In 1920s, many people have extra money,
leisure time to enjoy it• Crowds attend sports events; athletes
glorified by mass media
Lindbergh’s Flight• Charles A. Lindbergh makes first solo nonstop flight across Atlantic• Small-town Minnesotan symbolizes honesty, bravery in age of excess• Lindbergh paves the way for other pilots
Entertainment and the Arts• Silent movies already a national pastime• Introduction of sound leads millions to attend every week• Playwrights, composers break away from European traditions• George Gershwin uses jazz to create American music• Painters portray American realities, dreams• Georgia O’Keeffe paints intensely colored canvases of New York
Writers of the 1920s• Sinclair Lewis is first American to win Nobel Prize for literature - criticizes conformity, materialism• F. Scott Fitzgerald reveals negative side of era’s gaiety, freedom• Edna St. Vincent Millay celebrates youth, independence in her poems• Writers soured by American culture, war settle in Europe - called Lost Generation • Expatriate Ernest Hemingway introduces simple, tough, American style
The Move North• 1910–1920, Great Migration of thousands
of African Americans- move from South to Northern cities • By 1920, over 40% of African Americans
live in cities• Racial tensions escalate in North; about 25
urban race riots in 1919• African-Americans continue to migrate in
large numbers in 1920s
African-American Goals• National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP)- protests racial violence• NAACP leader James Weldon Johnson
fights for civil rights legislation• NAACP antilynching campaign leads to
drop in number of lynchings
Marcus Garvey and the UNIA• Marcus Garvey founds Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)- believes African Americans should build separate society • Garvey promotes black pride, black businesses, return to Africa
African-American Writers• Harlem world’s largest black urban area; people from U.S., Caribbean• Harlem Renaissance—African-American literary, artistic movement - express pride in African-American experience• Claude McKay’s poems urge blacks to resist prejudice, discrimination• Langston Hughes’s poems describe difficult lives of working class- many written in jazz, blues tempo
African-American Performers• Influence, popularity of Harlem Renaissance go
beyond black audience• Musical comedy Shuffle Along launches
movement - is popular with white audiences• African-American performers win large
followings• Paul Robeson—major dramatic actor in London, New York
African Americans and Jazz• Jazz born in early 20th century New Orleans, spreads across U.S.• Trumpeter Louis Armstrong makes personal expression key part of jazz- most influential musician in jazz history • Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington—jazz pianist, orchestra leader- one of America’s greatest composers• Cab Calloway, Armstrong popularize scat (improvised jazz singing)• Bessie Smith—blues singer, perhaps best vocalist of decade
Chapter 14 The Great Depression Industries in Trouble• Key industries like railroads, textiles, steel barely make profit• Mining, lumbering expanded during war; no longer in high
demand• Coal especially hard-hit due to availability of new energy sources• Boom industries—automobiles, construction, consumer goods—
now weak • Housing starts decline
Farmers Need a Lift• International demand for U.S. grain declines after war - prices drop by 40% or more• Farmers boost production to sell more; prices drop further• Farm income declines; farmers default on loans; rural banks fail•Price-supports—government buys surplus crops, guarantees prices- Coolidge vetoes price-support bill
Consumers Have Less Money to Spend• People buy less due to rising prices, stagnant wages, credit debts
Living on Credit• Many people buy goods on credit (buy now, pay later)• Businesses give easy credit; consumers pile up large debts• Consumers have trouble paying off debt, cut back on spending
Uneven Distribution of Income• In 1920s, rich get richer, poor get poorer• 70% of families earn less than minimum for decent standard of
living• Most cannot afford flood of products factories produce
The Election of 1928• Democrat Alfred E. Smith—four times governor of New York• Republican Herbert Hoover gets overwhelming victory
Dreams of Riches in the Stock Market• Dow Jones Industrial Average tracks state of stock market• 1920s, stock prices rise steadily; people rush to buy stocks, bonds• Many engage in speculation, buy on chance of a quick profit• Buying on margin—pay small percent of price, borrow rest
Black Tuesday• September 1929 stock prices peak, then
fall; investors begin selling• October 29 or Black Tuesday, market,
nation’s confidence plummet• Shareholders sell frantically; millions of
shares have no buyers• People who bought on credit left with
huge debts• Others lose most of their savingsBank and Business Failures• Great Depression—economy plummets, unemployment skyrockets- lasts from 1929–1940• After crash, people panic, withdraw
money from banks• Banks that invested in stocks fail; people
lose their money• 1929–1932, gross national product cut
nearly in half- 90,000 businesses go bankrupt• 1933, 25% of workers jobless; those with
jobs get cuts in hours, pay
Worldwide Shock Waves• Great Depression limits U.S. ability to import European goods• Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act sets highest protective tariff ever in U.S.• Other countries cannot earn American currency to buy U.S. goods• International trade drops; unemployment soars around world
Causes of the Great Depression• Factors leading to Great Depression:- tariffs, war debts, farm problems, easy credit, income disparity• Federal government keeps interest rates low, encourages borrowing
The Depression in the Cities• People lose jobs, are evicted from homes• Shantytowns, settlements consisting of shacks, arise in cities• People dig through garbage, beg• Soup kitchens offer free or low-cost food• Bread lines—people line up for food from charities, public agencies• African Americans, Latinos have higher unemployment, lower pay
The Depression in Rural Areas• Most farmers can grow food for their
families• About 400,000 farms lost through
foreclosure- many become tenant farmers
The Dust Bowl• Farmers in Great Plains exhaust land through overproduction• 1930s, drought, windstorms hit; soil scattered for hundreds of miles• Dust Bowl— area from North Dakota to Texas that is hardest hit • Many farm families migrate to Pacific Coast states
Hardship and the Family• Family is source of strength for most
Americans• Some families break apart under strain of
making ends meet
Men in the Streets• Many men used to working, supporting
families have difficulty coping- cannot find jobs• About 300,000 hoboes wander country on
railroad box cars• No federal system of direct relief—cash or
food from government
Women Struggle to Survive• Homemakers budget carefully, can food,
sew clothes• Women work outside home; resented by
unemployed men
Children Suffer Hardships• Poor diets, health care lead to serious
health problems in children• Lack of tax revenue leads to shortened
school year, school closings• Teenagers leave home, ride trains in search
of work, adventure• Many women suffer in silence, ashamed to
stand in bread lines
Social and Psychological Effects• 1928–1932, suicide rate rises over 30%• Admissions to state mental hospitals triple• People give up health care, college, put off
marriage, children• Stigma of poverty doesn’t disappear; financial
security becomes goal• Many show great kindness to strangers• Develop habit of saving and thriftiness
Hoover’s Philosophy• President Herbert Hoover tells Americans
economy is sound• Many experts believe depressions a normal part
of business cycle• Hoover: government should foster cooperation
between competing groups• People should take care of own families, not
depend on government
Hoover Takes Cautious Steps• Calls meeting of business, banking, labor leaders
to solve problems • Creates organization to help private charities
raise money for poor
Boulder Dam• Hoover’s Boulder Dam on Colorado River is massive
project- later renamed Hoover Dam
• Provides electricity, flood control, water to states on river basin
Democrats Win in 1930 Congressional Elections• As economic problems increase, Hoover, Republicans
blamed• Democrats win House; Republican Senate majority
down to 1 vote• Farmers try to create food shortages to raise prices• Widespread criticism of Hoover: shantytowns called
“Hoovervilles”
Hoover Backs Cooperatives• Hoover negotiates agreements among private entities• Backs Federal Farm Board (organization of farm
cooperatives)- buy crops, keep off market until prices rise
• Gets large banks to establish National Credit Corporation
Direct Intervention• Federal Home Loan Bank Act lowers mortgage rates• Reconstruction Finance Corporation—emergency funds for businesses• Hoover’s measures don’t improve economy before presidential election
The Patman Bill Denied• Bonus Army—veterans go to D.C. in 1932 to support Patman Bill:- want payment of bonus• Hoover opposes bill; Senate votes down bill• Most veterans leave Washington; about 2,000 stay to speak to Hoover
Hoover Disbands the Bonus Army• Hoover fears violence, calls on U.S. Army to
disband Bonus Army• Infantry tear gas over 1,000 people, including
children; many injured• Public is stunned, outraged by government’s
actions
Chapter 15 The New Deal Electing Franklin Delano Roosevelt• Democrats nominate NY governor Franklin
Delano Roosevelt - reform-minded; projects friendliness, confidence• Democrats overwhelmingly win presidency,
Senate, House
Waiting for Roosevelt to Take Over• With “Brain Trust,” FDR formulates policies to alleviate problems• New Deal—relief for needy, economic recovery, financial reform
The Hundred Days• FDR launches Hundred Days; passes over
15 major New Deal laws • Emergency Banking Relief Act permits
Treasury Dept. to inspect banks- decides which are insolvent, sound, or need loans- public confidence in banks revived
An Important Fireside Chat• FDR gives fireside chats—radio talks explaining
New Deal measures• First chat discusses need for public support of
government, banks
Regulating Banking and Finance• Glass-Steagall Act establishes Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation- insures individual bank accounts, regulates banking practices• Federal Securities Act—companies must give all information on stocks• Securities and Exchange Commission created to regulate stock market• FDR gets law allowing production of some alcoholic beverages• 21st Amendment repeals prohibition by end of 1933
Rural Assistance• Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) raises food prices, lowers supply• Tennessee Valley Authority creates jobs renovating, building dams
Providing Work Projects• Civilian Conservation Corps—public works jobs for young men• Public Works Administration—money to states to create jobs• Civil Works Administration builds rural schools, pays teachers
Promoting Fair Practices• NIRA establishes codes of fair practice for industries- creates National Recovery Administration (NRA)• NRA sets standards, prices, limits production
Food, Clothing, and Shelter• Home Owners Loan Corporation gives loans to
prevent foreclosures• Federal Housing Administration gives loans for
mortgages, repairs• Federal Emergency Relief Administration—
direct relief to needy
Opposition to the New Deal• Deficit spending—spending more money than government takes in - funds New Deal• Liberals: New Deal does not do enough to help poor, fix economy• Conservatives: New Deal used to control business, socialize economy
The Supreme Court Reacts• Supreme Court strikes down NIRA, AAA as
unconstitutional• FDR proposes “Court-packing bill”; Congress, press
protest• Starting in 1937, justices retire; FDR appoints seven new
ones
Three Fiery Critics• Some conservative opponents form American Liberty
League• Think measures violate respect for personal rights,
property• Father Charles Coughlin withdraws initial support of New
Deal- wants guaranteed income, banks nationalized• Dr. Francis Townsend devises pension plan for elderly• Presidential hopeful, Senator Huey Long has popular
social program
Furthering the New Deal • By 1935, economic recovery not as great as FDR had
expected• FDR launches second phase: more relief for farmers,
workers• First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, a social reformer, prods
president
Reelecting FDR• 1936, Democrats win presidency, large majorities in both
houses• First time most African Americans vote Democratic• First time labor unions support presidential candidate
Focusing on Farms• 1936 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act
replaces AAA- rewards farmers for practicing soil conservation• New Agricultural Adjustment Act avoids unconstitutional
provision• Resettlement Administration gives loans to small
farmers to buy land• Farm Security Administration—loans to tenant farmers
to buy land• FSA hires photographers to shoot rural towns, farms,
farmer
Programs for Urban Workers• Works Progress Administration (WPA)—creates jobs• WPA workers build airports, roads, public buildings• Women workers sew clothes for the needy• WPA employs professional writers, artists, performers• National Youth Administration (NYA)—education, jobs, counseling• Gives aid to students in exchange for part-time work
Improving Labor Conditions•National Labor Relations Act, or Wagner Act, replaces NIRA:- protects right to join unions, collective bargaining- prohibits unfair labor practices• National Labor Relations Board hears testimony about
labor practices• Holds elections to determine if workers want unions• Fair Labor Standards Act sets maximum hours, minimum
wage
The Social Security Act• 1935, Social Security Act creates Social Security system;
provides:- insurance for retirees 65 or older- unemployment compensation- aid to disabled, families with children
Supporters and Critics of the New Deal• Conservatives think FDR made federal
government too large- stifled free enterprise, individual initiative• Liberals: didn’t do enough to socialize
economy, end inequalities• Supporters: did help country recover from
economic difficulties
Expanding Government’s Role in the Economy• FDR expands power of federal government, president• Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) regulates banking• Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulates investment• New Deal does not end Depression; does reduce suffering, give hope• Federal government goes deeply into debt to create jobs, give aid• Massive spending on equipment, supplies for WW II end Depression
Expanding and Regulating Utilities• Rural Electrification Administration brings
electricity to farms• Public Utility Holding Company Act aims to
stop financial corruptionWomen Make their Mark• Frances Perkins, secretary of labor, is first female cabinet member• FDR also appoints 2 women as diplomats, 1 as federal judge• Women still face discrimination in workplace from male workers• NRA sets some lower minimum wages for women• Federal work programs hire far fewer women than men• Only slight increase in overall % of women working for wages
African Americans Take Leadership Roles• FDR appoints more than 100 African Americans to government
- Mrs. Roosevelt plays key role• Educator Mary McLeod Bethune heads Division of Negro Affairs
of NYA• Helps organize “Black Cabinet” of African-American advisers• Daughters of American Revolution refuse Marian Anderson
concert• Mrs. Roosevelt resigns; arranges for Lincoln Memorial concert
The President Fails to Support Civil Rights• FDR afraid of upsetting white Southern Democratic voters• Refuses to approve antilynching law, end to poll tax• New Deal agencies discriminate against African Americans
- pay them lower wages, favor whites• African Americans help organize Southern Tenant Farmers Union• Generally support Roosevelt administration,
New Deal
Mexican Americans Under FDR• Mexican Americans generally support New Deal• Many come to U.S. in 1920s, settle mainly in Southwest
- work on farms• CCC, WPA help some Mexican Americans• Disqualify migrant workers with no permanent address
Native Americans and the New Deal• 1924, Native Americans receive full citizenship• John Collier, commissioner of Indian affairs, changes policies• Indian Reorganization Act favors native autonomy, mandates changes:
- lands belong to entire tribe; government can’t sell unclaimed areas
- children can attend schools on reservations- tribes elect tribal councils to govern reservations
The New Deal Coalition•New Deal Coalition—different groups that support Democratic Party
Labor Unions Flourish• Prolabor legislation leads unions to donate
money for FDR reelection• 1933–1941, union membership grows
from 3 million to over 10 million• American Federation of Labor traditionally
craft unions only• Committee for Industrial Organization
organizes industrial unions• Expelled by AFL, becomes Congress of
Industrial Organizations (CIO)
Labor Disputes• Sit-down strike important bargaining tactic
of 1930s- prevents owners from hiring strikebreakers• NLRB forces Republic Steel to negotiate
after clash with strikers
FDR Wins in 1936• Political organizations in large Northern cities support FDR• Urban, religious, ethnic groups also support FDR- FDR appoints officials of urban-immigrant background
Movies are a Hit• About 65% of population goes to movies once a week• Films offer escape from reality; show wealth, romance, fun• Gone With the Wind—perhaps most famous film of era• Musicals—live action or animated—way to forget problems• Comedies, realistic gangster movies especially popular• Several films present New Deal policies in positive light
Radio Entertains• 90% of households have a radio; families listen together every day• Dramas, variety shows play in evening• Orson Welles—actor, director, producer, writer • Soap operas for homemakers broadcast in middle of day• Children’s shows after school hours• Immediate news coverage becomes customary
Diverse Writers Depict American Life• Federal Writers’ Project supports many who become major writers• Richard Wright, African-American author, writes Native Son• John Steinbeck writes The Grapes of Wrath about Dust Bowl migrants• Some writers examine difficulty of life in 1930s• Others show dignity of ordinary people, values of small-town life
New Deal Ends• By 1937, economic improvement convinces
many Depression is ending• Congress wants to cut back programs; by
1939, New Deal over
Protecting Workers’ Rights• New Deal laws set standards, ban child labor, permit unions - establish policies followed today• National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) still mediates labor disputes
Banking and Finance• SEC still monitors stock market, enforces laws on
stock, bond sales• FDIC still protects individual investors in case of
bank failure
Social Security• Federal government takes responsibility for
citizens’ welfare • Provides for aged, disabled, needy
The Rural Scene• Commodity Credit Corporation makes loans to
farmers- based on amount of farmer’s surplus, parity price• Parity price—price intended to keep farmers’ income steadyAgricultural price supports set precedent of federal aid to farmers
The Environment• CCC plants trees, builds hiking trails, fire
lookout towers• Soil Conservation Service teaches methods
to preserve soil• Taylor Grazing Act reduces grazing on
public lands• Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) creates
electricity, prevents floods• Government adds national parks, wildlife
refuges, wilderness areas• Government-sponsored stripmining, coal
burning cause pollution