Post on 25-Feb-2016
description
The Art of
ArgumentReading and Understanding
Arguments
Getti
ng S
tarte
d
If you have your computer
or mobile device with you
the following may be useful.1. Go to http://iwp.iweb.bsu.edu/profd
ev/tech13.htm2. Download and save The Art of Argument PowerPoint3. Please click or copy
and paste: https://docs.google.com/a/libertyperry.org/forms/d/1fYfSqaQoTLUNYNjuQosrD_cPFpcUvOn__d3C2D5HEHE/viewform
Feel free to take notes in any way that you prefer, however if you have your computer or mobile device with you and have downloaded this PowerPoint presentation please let me recommend an option:Use the notes section beneath each slide.
From
an
AP
Test
Rea
der
"Carefully read the following passage by Susan Sontag. Then write an essay in which you support, refute, or qualify Sontag's claim that photography limits our understanding of the world. Use appropriate evidence to develop your argument." There followed a provocative and somewhat cryptic three-paragraph excerpt from On Photography.
Key
to S
ucce
ss
Perhaps the single most important key to success on an AP Exam is the student's ability to see that the prompt identifies a task to be performed. Students who were successful on Question Three recognized key words in the prompt and were able to determine the task they were being asked to do.
Clai
m a
nd
Argu
men
t
This question was not merely an invitation to write discursively on the subject of photography. The word "claim" in the prompt should have alerted students to the need for writing in argumentative form. This point was reinforced by the explicit mention of "argument" in the last sentence. The question requires that students understand what an argument is and know how to construct one.
Supp
ort,
Refu
te, o
r Qu
alify
The words "support, refute, or qualify" are technical terms that were not decoded in the question. Students need to know and need to have practiced these forms of argument during the term. (Some students misunderstood "qualify"; for example, "Sontag is not qualified to talk about photography.") In addition, these three words should signal to students that taking a position, even if a qualified one, is essential.
Evid
ence
and
De
velo
p
The word "evidence" is also important. Students need to know not only what constitutes evidence, but the difference between evidence and example. Even "develop" conveyed important signals -- their argument needed to move forward; they couldn't just make one little point and assume they were developing it by adding six redundant illustrations.
Wha
t do
we
mea
n by
ar
gum
ent?
Can an argument really be any text that expresses a point of view?
What kinds of argument – if any – might be made by the following items?
a Red Sox cap the health warning on a
packet of cigarettes a Rolex watch
Why
do
we
mak
e ar
gum
ent?
To win – politics, business, law (to convience [agreement] or persuade [actin])
Invitational arguments – mutual exploration based on respect.
To find common ground – Rogerian arguments (both/and or win/win)
Reasons to Argue
Winning
Convincing
Persuading
Inform
Explore
Make Decisions
Reflect
Meditate
Pray
ActivityWhat are your reasons for making
arguments. Keep notes for two days
about every single argument you make,
using our broad definition to guide
you. Then identify your reasons: How
many times did you aim to pursuade?
To convince? To explain or inform? To
explore? To decide? To medtate?
Argu
men
tatio
n
While writing a classical argument may seem daunting at first, it is mainly common sense.
From arrangement to fallacies, we encounter these principles routinely.
We will be studying formally concepts and strategies we observe and use in daily life.
Two Types of
Logical Appeals
Induction and Deduction
Indu
ctio
n
The compiling of evidence to support an argument
The amassing of reasons The more evidence, the
better, but often three good ones will do
What lawyers do
Indu
ctio
n
When arguing inductively, ask yourself these three questions:
1. Are the examples sufficient in number? (Do you have enough?)
2. Are the examples truly representative of the issue? (Are they relevant?)
3. Do the examples come from a reliable authority or from logic?
General
Specific
Dedu
ctio
n
Involves premises—statements upon which all parties agree, which, when considered logically, lead to a strong conclusion
Getting all parties to agree on the premise is often the cause of the debate.
Dedu
ctio
n
When arguing deductively, ask yourself these questions:
1. Are the premises themselves valid or resulting from strong inductive evidence?
2. Does the conclusion follow logically?
General
Specific
More on this later . . .
The Five Cannons of Rhetoric
The
Five
Cann
ons o
f Rh
etor
ic
The ancient Romans called the formal study of argumentation “rhetoric.”
By the time of the great Roman orator Cicero, five parts of discourse had been named.
The
Five
Cann
ons o
f Rh
etor
ic
1. Inventio2. Dispositio3. Elocutio4. Memoria5. Pronuntatio
The pattern is more important than the actual terms
Inve
ntio
Discovery or invention Given a topic, the orator had
to find arguments to support his point of view.
Inventio is a system for finding those arguments, coming up with something to say
He had to make some carefully thought out choices such as the three appeals (ethos, logos, pathos).
There were others that we’ll discuss later, but for now we are interested in the basics.
Disp
ositi
o
Arrangement or organization Romans had six parts:
Exordim—introduction Narratio—statement of the
case under discussion (thesis) Divisio—outline of points to be
covered (usually omitted now unless book length)
Confirmatio—the proof of the argument
Confutatio—refute the opponent’s argument
Peroratio—conclusion These provide a set of
simple, definite principles to follow.
Eloc
utio
Style—same things we look at today
Levels of style—informal vs. formal; vary by purpose
Diction—word choice; simple vs. ornate, clarity, etc.
Syntax—the arrangement of words; sentence structure, patterns of words; tropes and schemes
Mem
oria
Memorization; had specific techniques
We are not especially concerned with this today, especially since we will be writing not speaking.
However, what we can recall from memory about an issue or topic can help in responding to writing prompts.
Pron
unta
tio
Delivery; the use of the voice Today, this refers to the
medium in which the argument is delivered: spoken, written, visual, etc.
A final word of warning—don’t use these Latin terms on the exam, especially if you can’t spell them correctly; you will look pretentious.
Rogerian Approach
Roge
rian
Appr
oach
Carl Rogers—a renowned therapist
The goal of therapy is often the same as argumentation—attitude change
This approach tries to bring about that change by rational argument
“Each person can speak up for himself only after he has first restated the ideas and feeling of the previous speaker, and to that speaker’s satisfaction.”
Roge
rian
Appr
oach
Introduction Summary of Opposing
Views Statement of
Understanding Statement of Your
Position Statement of Contexts Statement of Benefits
Clas
sica
l M
odel
Exordium—the introduction; introduces the reader to the subject (ethos)
Narratio—the narration; provides factual information and background material; begins the developmental
paragraphs or establishes
why there is a problem that
needs addressing (pathos)
Clas
sica
l M
odel
Confirmatio—the body (confirmation); the main part
of the text; includes the proof
to make the writer’s case
(logos) Refutatio—the refutation;
addresses the counterargument; classically
just before the conclusion,
but if opposing views are well
known or valued by the audience may be before the
confirmatio (logos)
Clas
sica
l M
odel
Peroratio—the conclusion; brings the essay to a satisfying close; answers the question “so what” (pathos and reminds of ethos)
Classic rhetoricians believed the last words and ideas are the ones remembered the most
Patterns of Development
Arrangement is based on purpose Include a range of
logical ways to organize an entire text or (more likely) individual paragraphs The way we will study
different types of writing