2 configuration of interacting genes,dfen and his colleagues suggest thatny complex psychological traits, in-iing the strikingly similar idiosyn-sies of identical twins, may resultn a unique configuration of interact-genes.Lykken and his colleagues call cer-raits emergenic traits because theyir (or emerge) only out of a uniqueTiration of many interacting genes,ugh they are genetically influenced,jenic traits do not run in families,istrate the idea of emergenic traits,ler the couple of average intelli-who give birth to an extraordi-gifted child. By all predictions,

ouple's offspring should have nor-iverage intelligence. But because ofnique configuration of the child'sacting in combination, extraordi-

pftedness emerges (Lykken & oth-»92)./id Lykken compares emergenicto a winning poker hand. All theers of the family are drawing fromtine "deck," or pool of genes. Butember may come up with the spe-nfiguration of cards that producesJ flush—the unique combination3s that produces an Einstein or a>ven. History is filled with cases ofwith exceptional talents and abil-

L varied fields who grew up in av-"amilies.illy, it's important to point out thatvere many differences, as well as•ities, between the identical twinsMinnesota study. For example, oneas prone to depression, while the/as not; one twin was an alcoholic,;he other did not drink. So, evenlentical twins, it must be remem-hat personality is only partly de-ad by genetics.

A third criticism is that trait approaches generally fail to address otherimportant personality issues, such as the basic motives that drive human per-sonality, the role of unconscious mental processes, how beliefs about the self in-fluence personality, or how psychological change and growth occur (McAdams,1992). Conspicuously absent are the grand conclusions about the essence ofhuman nature that characterize the psychoanalytic and humanistic theories. So,although trait theories are useful in describing individual differences and pre-dicting behavior, there are limitations to their usefulness.

As you've seen, each of the major perspectives on personality has contributedto our understanding of human personality. The four perspectives are sum-marized in Table 10.5. For a critical look at a distinctly different approach to un-derstanding personality, read Science Versus Pseudoscience Box 10.3, Is YourPersonality Written in the Stars?

Our discussion of personality would not be complete without a descriptionof how personality is formally evaluated and measured. In the next section, we'llbriefly survey the tests that are used in personality assessment.

Table

The Major Personality Perspectives

Perspective Key Theorists Key Themes and Ideas

Psychoanalytic

Humanistic

Social cognitive

Trait

Sigmund Freud

Carl Jung

Karen Horney

Alfred Adler

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

Albert Bandura

Raymond Cattell

Hans Eysenck

Robert McCrae,Paul Costa, jr.

Influence of unconscious psychological processes; importanceof sexual and aggressive instincts; lasting effects of earlychildhood experiences

The collective unconscious, archetypes, and psychological harmony

Importance of parent-child relationship; defending against basicanxiety; womb envy

Striving for superiority, compensating for feelings of inferiority

Emphasis on the self-concept, psychological growth, free will,and inherent goodness

Behavior as motivated by hierarchy of needs and striving forself-actualization

Reciprocal interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmentalfactors; emphasis on conscious thoughts, self-efficacy beliefs,self-regulation, and goal setting

Emphasis on measuring and describing individual differences;1 6 source traits of personality

Three basic dimensions of personality: introversion-extraversion,neuroticism-emotional stability, and psychoticism

Five-factor model: five basic dimensions of personality: neuroticism,extraversion, openpess to experience, agreeableness, conscientious^