Review of the declaration of Lantana species

Review of the declaration of

Lantana speciesin New South Wales

N S W D P I

Review of the declaration of

Lantana speciesin New South Wales

NewSouthWalesDepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesOrangeNSW2800

Frontispiece.AfloweringandfruitingbranchofthecommonpinkvarietyofLantanacamara,nearCopmanhurst(NSWnorthcoast,October2005)(Source:S.Johnson,NSWDPI).

©StateofNewSouthWalesthroughNSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries2007.Youmaycopy,distributeandotherwisefreelydealwiththispublicationforanypurpose,providedthatyouattributeNSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesastheowner.

ISBN9780734718891

Disclaimer: The information contained in this publication is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (December 2007). However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information upon which they rely is up to date and to check currency of the information with the appropriate officer of New South Wales Department of Primary Industries or the user’s independent adviser. Job number 7262

ThisdocumentwaspreparedbyDrStephenJohnsonWeedEcologistWeedsUnitBiosecurity,ComplianceandMineSafety

Telephone:0263913146Facsimile:0263913206LockedBag21ORANGENSW 2800

Figure1.WhiteandpurplefloweringvarietiesoftheornamentalLantanamontevidensisplantedinamedianstrip,Griffith(southwesternNSW,September2005)(Source:S.Johnson,NSWDPI).

iv REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW

EXECUTIVESUMMARY 1

SCOPEOFTHISREVIEW 3

REVIEWOFTHEDECLARATIONOFLANTANASPECIESINNSW 5

NOMENCLATURE 5

CONTENTS

Lantanacamara 5

Lantanamontevidensis 5

SPECIESDESCRIPTIONS 5Lantanacamara 5

TAXONOMY 9FamilyVerbenaceae 9

Lantanagenus 9

TheLantanacamaraspeciesaggregate 9

VarietiesofL.camarainAustralia 11

VarietiesofL.montevidensisinAustralia 14

ORIGIN 14

LIFECYCLE 16

DISPERSAL 19

GROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT 20

HABITAT 20Climaticrequirements 20

Soils 21

DISTRIBUTIONINAUSTRALIA 22Currentdistribution 22

Lantanacamara 22

Potentialdistribution 23

IMPORTANCE 24Detrimental 24

Pastures 25

Naturalecosystems 26

Forestry 28

Plantationandothercrops 28

Railwayandserviceproviders 28

Allelopathy 28

Hostsforotherpests 28

Humaneffects 29

Beneficial 29

Ornamental 29

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW v

Otherhumanuses 29

Alternativefoodandhabitatsourcesforwildlife 29

Otherbenefits 29

ThesaleofornamentalLantanaspecies 30

NegativeimpactsoftheremovalfromsaleofLantanaspecies 31

LEGISLATION 31Statedeclaration 31

AWeedofNationalSignificance(WoNS) 32

Benefitsthatmayaccruefromcontinuedlegislativecontrol 32

CONTROL 32Prevention 33

Herbicides 33

Othermanagement 34

Fire 34

Mechanicalclearing 35

Cultivation 35

Handremovalandflameweeding 36

Grazingmanagement 36

Revegetation 36

Biologicalcontrol 37

IntegratedmanagementofL.camara 37

Pasturesituations 38

Naturalecosystems 38

Controllingregrowth 39

Identifyingthecausesofinfestation 39

IntegratedmanagementofL.montevidensis 39

SOCIALLIMITATIONSTOCONTROL 40ThewidespreadacceptanceofL.camara 40

IssuesinvolvedwiththesaleofLantanaspecies 40

ConstraintstomanagingL.camara 41

Motivatinglandmanagerstoundertakemanagement 42

RECOMMENDATIONS

FURTHERRESEARCHNEEDS

INFORMATIONREQUIREDFROMCONSULTATION

CONCLUSIONS 44

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

vi REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW

APPENDICESAppendix1 DeclarationsofLantanaspeciesacrossAustralia.Appendix2 RecommendationsfordeclarationsofLantanaspeciesinNSW.

ABBREVIATIONSACT AustralianCapitalTerritoryNSW NewSouthWalesNT NorthernTerritoryQld QueenslandSA SouthAustraliaVic VictoriaWA WesternAustralia

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThisreviewhasbenefitedgreatlyfrominformationandcommentsprovidedbystafffromNSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,BiosecurityQueensland,theUniversityofQueenslandandtheBotanicGardensTrust.

Figure2.A red and yellow flowering ornamental Lantana hybrid planted in a median strip, Griffith (south western NSW, September 2005)

(Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW vii

EXECUTIVESUMMARY aswellasotherareasreducingplantandanimalbiomass,abundanceandbiodiversity,generally

ThisdocumentexaminedthebasicbiologyandmanagementofLantanaspeciesinNSW.Twospecieshavenaturalised,thesebeingL.camara(lantana),apolyploidspeciesaggregatecomposedofatleast29differentweedyandornamentalvarietiesandL.montevidensis(creepinglantana)ofwhichoneweedyandatleastseveralornamentalvarietiesarepresent.VarietiesofL.camararesponddifferentlytoarangeofenvironmentalandmanagementconditionsandpractises.SpeciesofLantanaareabletohybridiseandmanysuchhybridsaregrownforhorticulturalpurposes.Despiteclaimstothecontrary,allvarietiesarefertiletosomeextent.AlthoughthereisextensivespreadofbothspeciesineasternAustralia,furtherspreadislikelyinbothcleanandinfestedareas.

Bothspeciesformdense,multibranchedthicketsmakingaccessandmanagementdifficult.Floweringandfruitsetmayoccurallyearroundwithdispersaloffruitbyarangeofbirdsandanimals.Bothspeciesareabletospreadvegetativelytosomedegree.

Lantanaspeciesinvadepastures,awiderangeofnaturalecosystems,forestryandplantationcrops,

causinglivestocktoxicityifeaten,oftenpreventingregenerationofnaturalareas,andaffectingtourism,recreationalandaestheticvalues.Alternatively,bothspecieshavebeenwidelyplantedasornamentalandhedgeplants,andasamenityplantings.Plantsmayprovidealternativehabitatforanimalsandprovideasourceofessentialoils.

LantanacamaraisaWeedofNationalSignificanceandhasbeenbannedfromtradeanddistributioninallstatesandterritoriesinAustralia.VarietiesofL.camaraaredeclarednoxiousinpartsofcoastalNSW,whilebothspeciesaredeclaredinQldandtheNT.ManagementofbothLantanaspeciesisdifficultwithintegratedcontrolprogramsneededincludingpreventative,chemical,mechanicalandbiologicalmeasureswhilefire,ploughing,handpulling,revegetationandgrazingmanagementareusefultools.

RecommendationsarisingfromthisdocumenthavebeenmadetotheNoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommitteeandarecontainedinAppendix2.

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW 1

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW2 REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW2

SCOPEOFTHISREVIEWThisdocumentoutlinesthebasicbiologyandmanagementofspeciesofthegenusLantanathatarepresentinNewSouthWales.ThereviewwasundertakentoascertainifthecurrentdeclarationofthenoxiousweedspeciesLantanacamarawasappropriate.AnassessmentofLantanamontevidensisandthelargenumberofornamentalLantanavarietieswasalsomadetodetermineifnewdeclarationswereappropriate.

Informationfromtheliteraturehasbeengroupedintothefollowinggeneralareasthroughoutthisdocument:nomenclature,speciesdescriptions,taxonomy,origin,lifecycle,dispersal,growthanddevelopment,habitat,distribution,importance,legislation,controlandrecommendations.Furtherresearchneedsandinformationrequiredfromconsultationhavebeenhighlighted.

Figure3.A flowering plant of the red variety of Lantana camara, near Seeview (Grafton, NSW north coast, October 2005) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW4 REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW4

REVIEWOFTHE usesthetaxonomicnameL.camaratodescribethisaggregatespecies.

DECLARATIONOFLANTANASPECIESINNSWNOMENCLATURE

Lantana camara ThereareavarietyofcommonnamesusedforLantanacamaraL.inAustralia.Theseinclude:Lantana,Commonlantana,Kamaralantana,Largeleaflantana,Redfloweredsage,WhitesageandWildsage(Shepherdetal.2001).

Internationalcommonnamesinclude:Achmann(Cambodia),Bahugbahug(Philippines),Bands(India),Boengapagar(Indonesia),Bungatahiayam(Malaysia),Cambaradeespinto(Brazil),Cariaquillo(PuertoRico),Chiponiwe(Zimbabwe),Cuasquito(Nicaragua),Guphul(India),Kauboica(Fiji),KembangsatikandKembangtelek(Indonesia),Largeleaflantana(USA),Latoramoa(Tahiti),Nagaairi(India),Phakakrong(Thailand),Phullaki(India),Pricklylantana(Malaysia),Putus(India),Redfloweredsage(Barbados,ThailandandTrinidad),Saliara(Indonesia),Sapinit(Philippines),Tahiagam(Indonesia),Tantbi(India),Taturamoa(Tahiti),Telekan(Indonesia),Thomoi(Vietnam),Tickberry(easternAfricaandZimbabwe),Vieillefille(Mauritius),Wildsage(Jamaica)andWhitesage(ThailandandTrinidad).

Synonymsthatareusedtodescribethespeciesinclude: CamaravulgarisBenth.,LantanaaculeataL.,Lantanacamarasubsp.aculeata(L.)R.W.Sanders,Lantanacamaravar.aculeata(L.)Moldenke,LantanacamaraL.var.camara,Lantanacamaravar.crocea(Jacq.)L.H.Bailey,Lantanacamaravar.sanguineaL.H.Bailey(pinkedgedredfloweringvariety),Lantanacamaravar.splendensMoldenke,LantanacroceaJacq.(pinkedgedredfloweringvariety),LantanatiliifoliaCham.andLantanascabridaSol.(Holmetal.1977;Everist1981;JessopandToelken1986;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;APNI2007).

AbriefdiscussionofthevalidityofthetaxonomicrevisionofL.camaratoL.strigocamaraiscontainedinthetaxonomysection(Sanders2006).Thisdocument

Lantana montevidensis ThereareanumberofcommonnamesusedforLantanamontevidensis(Spreng.)Briq.inAustralia.Theseinclude:Creepinglantana,Lantana,Polecatgeranium,Purplelantana,Sellow’slantana,Smalllantana,Trailinglantana,WeepinglantanaandWildverbena(Shepherdetal.2001;O’Donnell2002).

TherearetwosynonymsusedforthisspeciesthesebeingLantanasellowianaLink&OttoandLippiamontevidensisSpreng.(White1929;StanleyandRoss1986;Shepherdetal.2001;APNI2007).LantanamontevidensiswasknownasL.sellowianafromitsintroductionintoAustraliauntilthe1930’s(Swarbrick1986). PlantsformerlyidentifiedasL.sellowianahavenowbeenclassifiedasL.montevidensis. OtherspeciesnamesthathavebeenusedinvariousliteratureincludeL.sellowii,L.selowianaandL.delicatissima(Anon.1857;O’Donnell2002).ThesenameshavenotbeenrecordedintheAustralianPlantNamesIndex(APNI2007).

ThesetwoLantanaspeciesaretheonlyspeciesrecordedasbeingnaturalisedinNSW.Theyhavebeenreferredtobyscientificnamethroughoutthisdocument.

SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS

Lantana camara Lantanacamaraplantsaremultibranchedshrubsthatgenerallygrowfrom24minheight(AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992,Figures35and14).Thebranchesclimbovereachother,formingdensethickets(Conn1992),to15minheightifsupportedbysurroundingvegetation(Swarbricketal.1998). Thebranchesaresquareincrosssectionand24mmindiameterwhenyoung,becomingmorerounded,grey/brownandupto150mmindiameterwhenmature(Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Theyoungstemsoftheweedyvarietiesarehairyandhaveshortrecurvedprickleswhilethoseonthenonweedyvarietiesarerounder,moreslenderanddonothaveprickles(Swarbricketal.1998). Thebranchesmaybe

woodyorbrittleandoftenhavepithycentres(Everist1981;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004).

Theovalshapedleavesareborneoppositeeachother,are20120mmlongand1580mmwide,onpetioles530mmlong(Holmetal.1977;StanleyandRoss1986;Conn1992;Munir1996;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Theleafbasesarerounded,pointedorheartshapedwhilethemarginsareroundlytoothed(Conn1992;Swarbricketal.1998). TheleavesofthepinkfloweringvarietyofL.camaraarepalegreenwhilethoseoftheredfloweringvarietyaredarker(AuldandMedd1987).LeafsizeandshapeisdependantonthevarietyofL.camaraandtheavailabilityofmoisture(vanOosterhout2004).Theleavesmaysometimesbeglossy(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Theuppersurfaceoftheleavesisoftenwrinkledandcoveredinsharp,rigidhairswhilethelowersurfacemayormaynotbecoveredinshort,softhairs(Conn1992).Theleafveinsareprominentonthelowersurfacewhiletheuppersurfacecontainsveryfewstomata(Swarbricketal.1998). Theleaveshaveastrongodourwhencrushed(Swarbricketal.1998).

Theflattoppedtodomeshapedflowerheadsareproducedinpairsintheaxilsofoppositeyoungleaves(Swarbricketal.1998;Dayetal.2003;Figure4)andare1030mmindiameter,whilethepeduncleorflowerheadstemis2095mmlong(JessopandToelken1986;Conn1992;Munir1996;Swarbricketal.1998).Lanceshapedbractsarepresentunderneatheachflowerandare38mmlong(Munir1996).Thereare2040stalkless,tubularflowersineachheadwitheachcorolla(flower)914mmlongwithfourspreadingroundedlobes(AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;Swarbricketal.1998). Theflowerbudsareangularandtightlypacked,openinginitiallyfromtheoutsideoftheflowerheadandmovinginwardstowardsthecentre(Swarbricketal.1998). Newlyopenedflowersnormallyhaveyellowthroatswithflowerheadscolouredincombinationsofwhite,cream,yellow,orange,red,purpleandpink.Thesecolourstendtochangewithage(Conn1992;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).ThemostcommonvarietyofL.camarainNSWhasflowerheadsto25mmwideandindividualflowersthatarepalecreamtodarkyellowatfirst,changingtopinkandlilacorpurple(AuldandMedd1987).Thereareanumberof

flowercoloursinornamentalvarieties.Ornamentalvarietiesaregenerallymorecompactplantswithsmallerleaves(vanOosterhout2004).

ThefruitofL.camaraisadrupe(incorrectlyknownasaberry),48mmindiameter,greenandhardwhenimmature,turningashinypurple/blackwhenripe(AuldandMedd1987;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;Figure5).Fruitareborneinclustersofupto20witheachfruitcontainingone‘seed’thatispearshapedandpalestrawincolour,hardand1.54mmlongandwide(Holmetal.1977;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Thisseedisinfacttwofusedpyreneseachwithasingleembryo,bothofwhichareviable(Swarbricketal.1998;VivianSmithetal.2006).Swarbricketal.(1998)furthernotedthatnonweedyvarietiesofL.camaratendtoretaintheirflowerslongerafterpollinationincontrasttotheflowersofweedyvarietieswhichdarkenincolourafterpollination,losingtheiryellowcentreandthenfallfromtheplant. Nonweedyvarietiesproduceveryfewfruit,mostlyfailingtosetseedafterpollination.

Figure4.Lantana camara shoot showing leaf and flower head morphology (Source: Botanic Gardens Trust (2007), used with permission).

Figure5.A branch with flowers, green and mature fruit of the common pink variety of Lantana camara, near Copmanhurst (NSW north coast, October 2005) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

TherootsystemofL.camaraisbrownandwoodyandhasashorttaprootwithmanyshallowlateralbranches(Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Theselateralsdividerepeatedlytoformadenserootmat(Swarbricketal.1998). Lantanacamaraisabletovigorouslyregrowfromthebaseofthestem,fromtheplantcrownifdefoliatedbyfireorherbicide,orafterdroughtorfrostdamage,fromlateralrootfragmentswhenbrokenandslowlyfromrootedhorizontalstemsthatcomeintocontactwithmoistsoil(SaintSmith1964;Swarbrick1982;WaterhouseandNorris1987;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).

Lantana montevidensis Lantanamontevidensisisashrubwithhorizontallygrowingbranchesthatmayrootatthenodes(Conn1992;Munir1996,Figures1,6,13and15).Thebranchesalsotrailoverrocks,banksandclimbalongtreebranchesforsupport(White1929;Everist1981;Conn1992).Theyoungbranchesare12mmwide,squareincrosssectionandwithageupto5mmindiameter,becomingroundedastheymature(White1929;Everist1981;AuldandMedd1987;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Thestemsgrowfrom14minlengthbutrarelygainmorethan0.5metresinheightwiththeendsofbranchesgrowingupwards(Munir1996;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).

Figure6.Lantana montevidensis shoots showing leaf and flower head morphology (Source: S Johnson NSW DPI. Line drawing source: Botanic Gardens Trust (2007), used with permission.).

Thesebranchesformlowdensethicketsormatsandarefrequentlytrimmedtoformhedgesoverexistingstructures(StanleyandRoss1986;Swarbrick1986;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Thebranchesarealsoroughtotouchwithshortrigidhairs,havenoprickles,mayormaynothavehairsandareoftenglandularontheyoungerparts(Conn1992).

ThebrightgreenleavesofL.montevidensisareborneoppositeeachother,areovalshaped,generally830mmlong,516mmwide,onpetioles2040mmlong(Conn1992),althoughoccasionallylarger(White1929).Theleavesoftheornamentalvarietiesofthisspeciesmaybeslightlylarger,from2540mmlongand618mmwide(Everist1981).Theleafbasesmayberoundedortruncate(cutoffinappearance)whiletheleafmarginsaretoothed(StanleyandRoss1986;Conn1992).Theuppersurfaceoftheleavesiswrinkledandcoveredinsharprigidhairswhilethelowersurfacemayormaynotbecoveredinshortsoftwhitehairsandiscommonlyslightlypaler(Everist1981;Conn1992).Thelowerleafsurfacehasyellowandorangeglandsonit.Theleavesarestronglyaromaticwhencrushed(AuldandMedd1987;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001),andthisismostmarkedintheweedyvariety(Everist1981).

8 REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW

Theflowerheadsofthisspeciesis1040mmindiameterwhilethepeduncleis15100mmlongand TAXONOMYborneintheleafstalk(KleinschmidtandJohnson1977;Conn1992;Munir1996).Thereareupto20flowersineachheadalthoughtheweedyvarietyhasfewerflowers(Everist1981;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Broadlyovalshapedbractsarepresentunderneatheachflowerheadandare47mmlong.Eachcorolla(flower)is812mmlongand410mmindiameter(Conn1992;Munir1996;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001). Theflowersarepalepurple,mauveorlilacincolourwithapaleyelloworwhitecentrewhenyoung,becomingpurpleonmaturity(White1929;Everist1981;AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;O’Donnell2002).Munir(1996)statedthatflowersofL.montevidensisarealsopink,roseormagenta.OrnamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensishavelilacandwhiteflowersandaremorecompactplantswithsmallerleaves(vanOosterhout2004).Munir(1996)alsostatedthatyellowfloweringvarietieswerecommonincultivationbutthesearemisnamedastheyareahybndofL.camaraxL.depressa

TheellipsoidfruitofL.montevidensisisadrupe(incorrectlyknownasaberry),greenatfirst,28mmindiameterandpurple/blackorreddish/brownwhenmature(White1929;Everist1981;Conn1992;Munir1996;Conn1999;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Severalauthorsnotethatonlytheweedyvarietyofthisspeciesproducedfruitwhereastheornamentalvarietiesrarely,ifever,producedfruit(AuldandMedd1987;Everist1981;Swarbrick1986;O’Donnell2002).O’DonnellandPanetta(2000)indicatedthateachfruithasuptotwoseeds.Theseedsofthisspeciesareapalestrawcolourandupto4mmlong(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Thisspecieshasabrownwoodytaproot,stronglateralrootsandfinewhiteroots(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Thislargelignifiedtaprootisalsoknownasaxylopodiumanditactsasacarbohydratestorageorganallowingthespeciestoresistfire,droughtandherbicidedamage(O’DonnellandPanetta2000).

ThetwospeciesareeasilydifferentiatedwithL.montevidensishavingahorizontalgrowthhabit,branchesthatreadilyrootatthenodes,purplishflowers,leavesthatarelessthen25mmlongandthelowerleafsurfacethathasyellowtoorangeglands.Lantanacamaradoesnothaveanyofthesecharacteristics.

Family Verbenaceae TheVerbenaceaefamilyincludesaround75generaand3000speciesofherbs,shrubsandtreesoftropicalandsubtropicalpartsoftheworld(Conn1992).Conn(1992)recordedthepresenceof17generaand62speciesinAustraliaandninegeneraand19speciesarefoundinNSW.Hosking(inprep.)recognisedoneadditionalgenusandatleastfivemorespecies.AsidefromLantana,thereareanumberofAustraliangenerathatcontainweedyspeciesincludingPhyla(lippia),Verbena(purpletop/verbena)andStachytarpheta(snakeweed)(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).

Lantana genus Dayetal.(2003)summarisedthecomplextaxonomyinherentinthefamilyVerbenaceaeandgenusLantana.TheLantanageneraiscomposedof150herbandshrubspecies,nativetotropicalAmericawithseveralnativetoAfricaandAsia(Conn1992;Dayetal.2003). Holmetal.(1979)recordedthatnineofthesespeciesareweedsinvarioustropicalandsubtropicalareas.FourdistinctsectionsinthegenusLantanaarerecognised(Munir1996). TwoofthesearesectionCalliorheaswhichincludesL.montevidensisandsectionCamarawhichincludesL.camara. ThehaploidchromosomenumbersforthesectionCalliorheasaren=12whilethoseinthesectionCamaraaren=11.

The Lantana camara species aggregate TheaggregatespeciesknownasL.camaraisa“variablepolyploidcomplexofinterbreedingtaxa”(Dayetal.2003;Sanders2006). Itcontainsawidediversityofvarietiesarisingfromhorticulturalandnaturalhybridisation,selectionandsomaticmutation(Swarbricketal.1998;Dayetal.2003,e.g.Figure2).IthasbeenwidelystatedthatthespeciesL.camaraarosefromhybridisationofanumberofsimilarorcloselyrelatedbutspatiallydistincttropicalAmericanspecies,orindeedfromcomplexesderivedfromthesespecies.Forexample,RAPD(RandomAmplifiedPolymorphicDNA)studieson30differentpopulationsofthepinkvarietyofL.camarafromtheeastcoastofAustralia(16.935.4oS)indicatedthatthesepopulationsprobably

arosefromL.urticifolia(Scottetal.2002). ItislikelythatvarietiesofL.camarainothercountrieshavedifferentorigins.

Inreviewingthesituationoutlined,Sanders(2006)statedthat“currentusageofL.camaraincludesawidelycultivatedandnaturalisedcultigenspeciesofhybridoriginthatistaxonomicallydistinctfromL.camara”. ThatauthordescribedtheweedymaterialheexaminedbelongingtothiscultigenasanewspeciesLantanastrigocamara. Itisimportanttonotethatthisdoesnotimplythat“allweedyLantanainallcountriesisL.strigocamaraduetothemultipleimportationsofLantanatoeachcountry”(W.Palmerpers.comm.).Palmerfurtherstatesthatover250AustralianLantanaspecimenshavebeensenttoDrSanderstoascertainthecorrectspeciesnameofthismaterial.Inlieuofthatwork,thisdocumentusesthenameL.camara.

TheaggregatespeciesL.camarafreelyhybridiseswithinthespeciesitselfproducingfertilehybridsthatmayexhibitsomemorphologicaldifferenceswhencomparedtotheadultplants(Spies1984a).Membersofthisspeciescanalsohybridisebacktotheparentspeciesthatthecomplexwasderivedfrom(Swarbricketal.1998). Thetaxathathaveresultedfromthishybridisationhavebeengivenspecies,form,cultivar,biotype,subspeciesandvarietalstatus(Dayetal.2003).Despitethefactthatthebotanicalrankvarietas(variety)hasbeenoverusedforplantsthatareactuallycultivarsandthatvarietalnamesaresomewhatmisapplied(Sanders2006),thisreviewusesthewordvarietytodenotedifferencesinL.camara.

ThelargenumbersofvarietiesofL.camarafoundthroughouttheworldvaryintermsofploidy,bushshape,flowercolour,prickliness,leafshape,responsetoenvironmentalconditions,naturalenemies,herbicides,chemicalcompositionandtoxicitytoanimals(Swarbricketal.1998;Dayetal.2003). Everist(1981)recordedthatmostweedyvarietiesofL.camarainAustraliaweretetraploids(2n=44),butthatseveralweretriploids(2n=33),onewasadiploid(2n=22),whileanotherwasapentaploid(2n=55).Swarbricketal.(1998)concludedthatmostweedyvarietiesinSouthAfricaandIndiaweretetraploidswhilemostornamentalornonweedyvarietiesweretriploids,andconcludedthatthiswasprobablyalsothecaseinAustralia.HexaploidvarietiesofL.camarahavealsobeenrecorded(NatarajanandAhuja1957;Spies1984a,b;Swarbrick

etal.1998). Thoseauthorssummariseinformationindicatingthattheseploidylevelsarisefromabreedingsystemthatissexual,semisexualandasexualorapomictic(notinvolvingthefusionofmaleandfemalegametesinreproduction),(KhoshooandMahal1967)andfrombothautoandallopolyploidywithinL.camaraandotherLantanaspecies(NatarajanandAhuja1957). Autopolyploidyarisesfromhavingtwoormoresetsofchromosomesderivedfromthesamespecieswhileallopolyploidyarisesfromhavingtwoormoresetsofchromosomesderivedfromdifferentspecies.

Someauthorshaveindicatedthatthereappearedtobenodirectrelationshipbetweenploidylevelormorphology,flowercolourandseedset(Swarbricketal.1998). Incontrast,TandonandBali(1955)notedthattriploidvarietiesweremorevigorous,hadlarger,thickeranddarkerleavesandproducedlargerandmorenumerousflowersincontrasttothediploidvarietiestheyexamined.Spies(1984a)alsostatedthatincreasesinseedmasswerealsoobservedasploidylevelincreasedfromdiploidtopentaploid.Incontrast,Swarbricketal.(1998)comparedthemorphologyof13weedyandornamentalvarietiesfromsoutheastQldandfoundsimilarityintheweedyvarietieswhichallhadlargerbushes,longerinternodelengthsandleafblades,pricklystemsandhighlevelsoffruitproduction.Fiveofthesixornamentalvarietieshadsmallerbushes,shorterinternodelengthsandleaves,lackedpricklesandwhiletheyproducedsimilarflowernumbers,theysetveryfewfruit. ThesixthornamentalvarietyDrapd‘orhadmuchlargerbushes,internodesandleavesbutlackedpricklesandhadlittleseedproductionindicatingitwasderivedfromadifferentsourcetotheornamentalandweedyvarietiesexamined.

BranchesofcertainL.camaraplantsoccasionallymorphologicallyreverttoothervarietiesandbredtruetothatvarietywhencuttingsaretaken(SmithandSmith1982;Dayetal.2003). Thereasonswhythesesomaticmutationsoccurarepoorlyunderstoodeventhoughthebrancheshavebeenrecognisedasareversiontoparentvarietiesthattheplantwasderivedfrom(SmithandSmith1982).Dayetal.(2003)postulatedthatenvironmentalswitcheschangedtheexpressionofchromosomesinthesebranchesandthatsincethesechangeshadimportantimplicationsinsuccessfulbiologicalcontrolandtoxicitymanagement,thattheyneededtobeinvestigated.

ThecontinuedsaleofsupposedlysteriletriploidornamentalvarietiesofL.camarawillfurthercomplicatethetaxonomyofthisspecieswhereverweedyvarietiesarealsopresent(Dayetal.2003).Forexample,thereisevidencetosuggestthatthesesterilevarietiesarecapableofhybridisingwithfertileweedyvarietiesinAustraliaandSouthAfrica(SpiesandduPlessis1987;Neal1999).Therateatwhichthesenewgenecombinationsareintegratedintoweedypopulationsisnotknown(Neal1999;Dayetal.2003).

Varieties of L. camara in Australia AlthoughSmithandSmith(1982)recordedatleast29differentvarietiesofL.camarahadnaturalisedinAustralia,itishighlylikelythatthisnumberhaslongagobeenexceeded.Whilenaturalisedvarietiescanbepartiallydifferentiatedbyflowercolour,completedifferentiationreliesonarangeofcharacteristicsincludingflowercolourandsize,flowerlimbmorphologyandothervegetativecharacteristicssuchasthesize,shapeandcolouroftheleaves,thestructureofleafhairs,thorninessandthelengthofbracts(Everist1981;SmithandSmith1982;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004).Swarbrick(1986)notedthatmostweedyvarietiesofL.camarainAustraliahadlong,rambling,thornystemsandfreelysetseedwhiletheornamentalvarietiesatthattimetendedtobethornlessornearlysoandsetcomparativelylittleseed.

FourorfivemajorgroupsofL.camaracanbeseparatedviatheirflowercolourasfollows:

n redfloweredvarietiesthatareorangeoryellowafteropeningbutchangetoashadeofredwhenmature.Therearetwosubgroupswithinthesevarieties,thosewithpinkedgesandthosethataredarkred.Everist(1981)andvanOosterhout(2004)givethesetwosubgroupsvarietystatus,thatistheredandpink-edgedredvarieties;

n pinkfloweredvarietiesthataredividedintotwosubgroupsbasedonflowersizethatissmallandlargeflowervarieties.ThetypicalweedyvarietyofL.camaraisasmallflowervariety,withflowersstartingaspaleyelloworwhiteandmaturingintopink(adifferentcolourtothatoutlinedabove);

nwhiteorpale-pinkfloweredvarieties;and

n orangefloweredvarietieswithflowersthatremaindeepyellow(similartoFigure7)toorangethroughouttheirlife.

ThesevarietieshavebeendocumentedinvanOosterhout(2004),pg.6.AsummaryofthemostdistinguishingcharacteristicsisoutlinedinTable1andFigure8.

Ensbey(2003)outlinesfourofthemostcommonL.camaravarietiesthatoccurinNSW.Theseincludethe:

n commonpinkfloweredvarietythatisspreadthroughoutNSW(includedinthepinkfloweringvarietiesabove);

n commonpink-edgedredfloweringvariety(e.g.Figure3)thatisfoundonthenorthcoast,aroundKempsey,Dorrigo,Bellingen,CoffsHarbourandGraftonandonthecentralcoast(includedintheredfloweringvarietiesabove);and

n roundredandStaffordredvarietiesthatarefoundonthenorthcoast,aroundKempsey,Bellingen,CoffsHarbour(againincludedintheredfloweredvarietiesabove).

Figure7.A yellow flowering ornamental hybrid variety of Lantana camara planted in a median strip, Griffith (south western NSW, September 2005) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

Figure8.Schematic representation of the flower heads of the weedy varieties of Lantana camara (extracted from van Oosterhout 2004, used with permission). ThevarietiesareasfollowsFig.8apinkflowered,Fig.8bwhiteflowered,Fig.8cpinkedgedredflowered,Fig.8dredfloweredandFig.8eorangeflowered.

SmithandSmith(1982)alsorecordedthreeothervarietiesofL.camarainNSW.ThefirstisaredfloweredvarietyknownaspaleStaffordredaroundKempsey,thesecondanorangeredvarietyknownasoblongredwestofGraftonalongtheGwydirhighway(apparentlynotabundantorwidespreadbutperhapsfoundelsewhereinthearea)andthethird,anorangefloweredvarietyknownastrueorangethatisoccasionalnearPalmBeach,northofSydney.Thislastvarietyiscommonlycultivated.

ThevalueofcategorisationofvarietiesofL.camaraintobroadflowercolourgroupshasbeenquestionedbyanumberofauthorsforvariousreasons.Thesereasonsincludewidevariabilityincolourwithinandbetweentaxamakingdifferentiationdifficult(Dayetal.2003;Sanders2006). Inaddition,therearedifferencesbetweensamecolouredvarietiesintheirtoxicitytolivestockandtheirsusceptibilitytobiologicalcontrolagentsorherbicidesbetweendifferentregions(DiatloffandHaseler1965;Seawright1965;Everist1981;Dayetal.2003). Furthermore,differentvarietiesofL.camarasurviveindifferentclimaticzonesandecosystemsinAustralia(Clarketal.2004).

Scottetal.(1997)analysedthegeneticrelationshipbetweenpinkandpinkedgedredweedyvarietiesofL.camarafromfourregionsalongtheeastcoastofAustraliaandfoundthatgeographicalproximitywasmoreimportantthanflowercolourindefininggeneticsimilaritybetweenpopulations.Whiletherewassomegeneticisolationbetweenvarietieswithinaregion,flowercolourhadlittlephylogeneticsignificancebetweenregions.TheoveralllevelofdifferentiationinL.camaravarietiesmakesitdifficultformanylandmanagersandscientistsaliketomanagethisweedandtopromoteconsistentweedmanagementmessages.

VarietiesofL. montevidensisinAustralia

Henderson(1969)recordedthattwovarietiesofL.montevidensisoccurredinAustralia,eachwithadifferentploidy.Thecommongardenvarietytestedwasatriploid(2n=36)whiletheweedyvarietywasatetraploid(2n=48).ItisnotknownifthefurtherintroductionofL.montevidensisvarietiesintoAustraliahasincreasedthenumberofploidylevels.Somedifferencesbetweentheweedyandtwoornamental

varietiesofL.montevidensis,onewithlilacflowersandtheotherwithwhiteflowers,areoutlined(Table1).Further,Neal(1999)indicatedthatcrossesbetweenL.montevidensisornamentalvarietiesmayhaveoccurredinAustralia.AvariegatedleafvarietyofL.montevidensiswithlilacflowersisalsocultivatedinthenewBotanicGardensinBrisbane(Swarbrick1986).

ORIGINThetwospeciesofLantananaturalisedinAustralia,L.camaraandL.montevidensisarebothnativetotropicalSouthAmerica.LantanacamarawasinitiallyintroducedintoEuropefromBrazilasanornamentalaround1636(Howard1969).FurtherintroductionsintoEuropecontinuedthroughoutthe17th,18thandespeciallythe19thcenturieswhereintroductions,ensuinghybridisationandvegetativereproductionofsomaticmutationsresultedintheregistrationof397newvarietalnamesinnurserycataloguesfrom1850to1900(Howard1969;Swarbrick1986).Inexcessof630varieties(not650asclaimedbymanyauthors)ofLantanahavebeendevelopedforhorticultureworldwideasaresultofhybridisation(Howard1969),althoughanumberofthesenamesmaybemisspellingsandsynonymsbecausedetailedbotanicaldescriptionsaregenerallyunavailable.

FromEurope,L.camarawasintroducedintoanumberofcountriesthatwereformerlypartofcolonialempires.Thespeciescannowbefoundgrowingasaweedinatleast60countriesorislandgroupsincludingtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,manycountriesinSouthAmerica,aroundthewesternMediterranean,throughoutAfrica,centralandsoutheastAsiaandvariouscountriesaroundthePacificoceanincludingNewZealandandAustralia(Holmetal.1979;Webbetal.1988;Dayetal.2003). AlthoughL.camaraiswidelygrownasanornamentalinothercountries,suitableterrestrialhabitatsfortheweedonlyoccurthroughouttropical,subtropicalandwarmtemperateareas(Figure9).

ThefirstrecordofL.camarainAustraliawasin1841intheoldAdelaideBotanicGardens(Bailey1841).LantanacamarawasfirstrecordedincultivationinNSWin1843nearSydney(Anon.1843,inMichael1972). Thespeciesquicklyspreadnorthwardsandwasrecordedasnaturalisedinthe1850’s,inBrisbane

in1861,andintheHastingsandClarencecatchmentsofNSWinthelate1860’s(Swarbrick1986).Bailey(1897)describedL.camaraas“ahugeramblingpricklybush...ithasspreadtoanalarmingextent,andformsimpenetrablethicketonthebanksofstreams,desertedfarms,andtheedgesofscrubs”inthePortJacksonandBrisbaneareas.Similarly,concernoverL.camararesultedinitbeinglistedasoneofthetenworstweedsinNSWin1895(Maiden1895)and1920(Maiden1920).

LantanacamarahasbeengrowninVicsince1852andWAsince1875,butmayhaveonlybeenintroducedtotheNTduringthe1930’sor1940’s(Swarbrick1986).Furtherexpansionintopreviouslyuninfestedareasislikelytostillbeoccurring,oftenasaresultoflandclearingandotherhumandisturbance(HumphriesandStanton1992;Swarbricketal.1998).

NumerousfurtherintroductionsofL.camarahaveoccurredinAustraliaasgardenplantsineasternAustralia(SmithandSmith1982),andprobablyintheNTandWA(Swarbricketal.1998). SmithandSmith(1982)consideredthat19varietiesweresufficientlycommonineasternAustraliatobeconsideredproblematicweedsortoxicplants.BothnurserystockandseedsofLantanaspecieswere,untillate2006,stillpermittedforimportintoAustralia(AustralianQuarantineandInspectionService2007).

Lantanamontevidensiswasalsowidelydistributedbymaninthe19thcentury(White1929;Swarbrick1986).Althoughmostauthorsgenerallyagreethatthenative

rangeofL.montevidensisincludessouthernBrazil,thereissomeconjectureiftherangealsoincludesUruguay(Everist1981)and/ornorthernArgentina(Dayetal.1999).

Swarbrick(1986)recordedthatthespecieswasintroducedintoEuropefromMontevideoin1822andtoAustraliaby1851(Johnson1872;Shepherd1851,bothinSwarbrick1986;Munir1996).Thespecies(L.sellowii)wasrecordedincultivationinsouthwestSydneyin1857(Anon.1857).Holmetal.(1979)indicatedthatL.montevidensishasonlybeenrecordedasaweedinAustralia,andperhapsinFlorida(Bailey1963)eventhoughitiswidelyplantedasanornamentalorhasnaturalisedinvariouspartsoftheworldincludingAustralia,NewZealand,AfricaandpartsofIndia(Everist1981;Webbetal.1988;Dayetal.2003;vanOosterhout2004).Suitableterrestrialhabitatsforthespeciesgenerallyoccurinsubhumidandsemiaridregionsofthetropicsandsubtropics(Everist1981;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).

LantanamontevidensiswaswidelydispersedinAustraliaappearingintheMelbournebotanicgardensin1852andtheninmanybotanicgardensandnurserycatalogues(Swarbrick1986).ThatauthorstatedthatthespecieswasfirstfoundinAdelaidein1859andBrisbanein1875.ThefirstmentionofL.montevidensisaseitheragardenescapeorweedisbyBaileyandTenisonWoods(1879)whorecordedthespeciesintheBrisbaneriverarea.Swarbrick(1986)alsonotedaBrisbaneherbariumspecimenthatindicatedthatL.montevidensishadnaturalisednearIpswichin1888.

Figure9.Suitable terrestrial habitats for L. camara throughout the world. (Source: Swarbrick et al. (1998), used with permission).

Swarbrick(1986)recordedanumberofobservationsofL.montevidensisinsoutheasternQldfrom18831909, LIFECYCLEgenerallyofplantsthatweregardenescapesfromnearbytownsintoneighbouringpastures.Swarbrick(1986)notedthatrapidspreadoftheweedincoastalQldoccurredafter1900withherbariumrecordsfromGayndahin1913and1917,nearCairnsin1918andatRockhamptonin1925.The1917Gayndahrecordissignificantbecausethespeciesisdescribedasa‘verycommonweed’(O’Donnell2002).Bythe1950’sand1960’sL.montevidensishadbecomewidespreadthroughoutcoastalandsubcoastalQld,especiallyintheBurnettdistrict(O’Donnelletal.1999). O’Donnell(2002)recordsthatbythe1980’sand1990’sthespecieshadreachedlevelswheretheongoingviabilityofgrazingenterprisesinsomeareasofQldwassignificantlyaffected.

ItispresentlyunclearwhenL.montevidensiswasfirstnotedasaweedprobleminNSW.RecordsattheRoyalBotanicGardensinSydneyindicatedthatinfestationsofthespecieswerepresentasearlyas1952nearConcordinSydneyandaround1963nearCasinoontheNorthCoast.IncontrasttothewidespreaddistributionofL.montevidensisinQld,onlylimitednaturalisationsofthespecieshaveoccurredinNSWandtheseweregenerallyrestrictedtotheSydneybasin,aroundCasinoandMurwillumbahonthenorthcoastandtoTamworth.

AlthoughanumberofauthorsindicatethatonlyonevarietyofL.montevidensishasbeenintroducedintoAustraliaasanornamental(AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001),vanOosterhout(2004)recordedornamentallilacandwhitevarietiesaswellasthecommonpurplefloweredweedyvariety(Table1;Figure1).

LantanacamaraxL.montevidensishybridshavebeendevelopedforuseinhorticulture.Forexample,Howard(1969)statedthattheL.montevidensishasbeenusedtoproducesuchhybridssincetheearly19thcenturyandHammer(2004)indicatedthatthispracticecontinues.Inparticular,L.montevidensisiscommonlyusedtoachievenewhorticulturalvarietieswithlow,moundingandtrailinggrowthhabits.Furthermoreanumberofauthorsnotedthehybridisationofbothpreviouslygeographicallyseparatedspecies(Sanders1989,inDayetal.2003)andvarieties(Spies1984b;Dayetal.2003)whengrowninthesamelocation.

SeedsofL.camaraandL.montevidensisgerminateatanytimeoftheyearprovidedthatthereissufficientsoilmoisture(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;O’Donnell2002). Lantanacamaraseedsneedhighlightconditionsforgerminationandearlygrowth(GentleandDuggin1997b;DugginandGentle1998;Stock2004)withseedlingsunlikelytosurvivebeneathdenseinfestations.

ThelargestseedlingflushesofL.camaraoccurafterinitialsummerstorms,particularlyinhigherrainfallareas(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004). vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthatincreasesinlightintensityandtemperaturearealsoimportantforgermination.Thesefactorsmayoccurasaresultofhumandisturbancee.g.clearing,burning,orpestanimalactivitysuchaspigrootingorrabbitburrowing.Germinationfromtheseeventswilloccurifsoakingrainsfollow,especiallyinareasthathavehighersoilmoisture,forexamplearoundcreeks,rivers,gulliesanddams(vanOosterhout2004).

Fieldgerminationratesrangebetween4and63%(GentleandDuggin1997b;Dayetal.2003).Germinationislikelytobeincreasedthroughanincreaseinnutrientsviaburning,andbybiomassremovalandsoilscarificationassociatedwithgrazingandfire(GentleandDuggin1997b;DugginandGentle1998).

SpecificstudiesontheconditionsrequiredforthegerminationofL.camaraseedsaresomewhatlimited.OnenotableexceptionisthestudyofVivianSmithetal.(2006)whichindicatedthattemperatureregimesbetween15and25oCweresuitableforgerminationofpinkandpinkedgedredvarietiesofL.camara. ThoseauthorsfoundthattheseedfeedingflyOphiomyialantanaedamagedtheseedofpinkedgedredvarietiesresultinginreducedgerminationandseedlingemergence.Incontrast,theemergenceofthemorecommonpinkvarietywasincreased,possiblyaresultofthedamagereducingdormancyinthisvariety.

O’DonnellandPanetta(2000)indicatedthatseedsofL.montevidensisrequiredlighttogerminateandthatseedburiedto12cmdidnotgerminate.O’Donnell(2002)presentedsomeevidencetosuggestgerminationflushesoccurredwhengoodsoilmoisture

conditionscoincidedwithcoldnighttemperaturesclosetoorbelowfreezing.Thatauthoralsofoundthatexposuretosmokefrompasturefiresfor5to15minutesalsostimulatedthegerminationofL.montevidensisseeds615times.Germinationandsubsequentgrowthwasenhancedinpasturegapsrangingfrom540cm(O’Donnell2002).

TheearlygrowthofbothL.camaraandL.montevidensisisslowwhilethetaprootandlateralrootsaredeveloped(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;O’Donnell2002),forexample,seedlingsofL.montevidensismayonlygrowatratesof1cm/month(O’Donnell2002).StudiesbyStockandWild(2006)foundthatseedlingsofL.camaragrowtallerandwiderundertherelativeopencanopyoftheweedasopposedtothosegrowingunderneaththecanopyofnumberofsubtropicalrainforestspecies.Seedlinggrowthwasmostlimitedunderrainforesttreespeciesthatformedtheoriginalor‘oldgrowth’forests.

AlthoughSahuandPanda(1998)notedlowratesofseedlingandmatureplantmortalityinL.camara,similarstudiesdonotappeartohavebeenrepeatedunderAustralianconditions.O’Donnell(2002)indicatedthatmortalityofL.montevidensisseedlingsoccurredviaawiderangeoffactorsincludingmoisturestress,physicaldisturbance,fire,herbicides,cattletramplingandperhapsgrazing.Seedlingsthusestablishedmorereadilyinprotectedareassuchasstonyoutcropsandareasprotectedfromcattle,underneathfencesandfallentimber,withintussocksofgrassesthatwerenoteatenandinpasturesthatwerenotsubjecttohotfires.

ThestemsofL.camaraplantsbegintoentwineformingthicketswithintheirfirstseasonofgrowthbuttheydonotproduceflowerswithinthisseason.Theonsetofwintereitherreducesorstopsgrowthanddevelopment.AlthoughglasshouseplantsofaL.camaraxL.depressahybridandL.montevidensishavebeenshowntoproduceseedswithinayear(Neal1999;O’Donnell2002),thedevelopmentofseedlingsofL.camaraandL.montevidensisismuchslowerinthefield(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;O’Donnell2002).Dormantseedlingsreshootinthefollowingspringandstarttoflowerinlatespring(L.montevidensis)orearlysummer(L.camara)inthesecondseasonofgrowth.ParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)recordedthatestablishedplantsofL.camaraflowerthroughout

summerandthenuntilMarchorApril.PlantsofL.camarawerereportedasfloweringbetweenSeptemberOctoberthroughtoMarchAprilinensuingyearsintemperateareasfromsouthernVictonorthernNSW(vanOosterhout).

Swarbricketal.(1998)summarisedvariousliteraturethatstatedthatfloweringinL.camaracanoccuryearroundunderconditionsofhighavailablesoilmoisture,airhumidityandtemperatureandwhenplantsgrewinwelllitsituations.ThisgenerallyresultsinfloweringandfruitsetallyearincoastalareasofQldandnorthernNSW,thatisinsubtropicalandtropicalareas(vanOosterhout2004).Incontrast,Webbetal.(1988)indicatedthatL.camaracanflowerallyearinNewZealand.Distinctflushesoffloweringfourtosixweeksafterrainfalleventsexceeding25mmfollowedbyfruitsetaremorecommonindrierinlandareas(Swarbricketal.1998;vanOosterhout2004).

AnumberofauthorsrecordthatestablishedplantsofL.montevidensisflowermostoftheyearinAustraliaandNewZealand(Conn1992;Webbetal.1988;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Morespecifically,O’Donnell(2002)recordedthatL.montevidensisfloweredinresponsetorainfallwithheaviestfloweringfollowingaprotracteddryperiod,forexampleafterthefirstspringrainfallbreak.

NewlyopenedflowersofL.camaraattractarangeofinsectpollinatorswhichresultinselfandcrosspollination.Theseinsectsincludebutterflies,moths,bumble,honeyandothertypesofbees,andthrips(Dronamraju1958;Schemske1976;Kugler1980inSwarbricketal.1998;Clemson1985;MathurandMohanRam1986).KhoshooandMahal(1967)statedthatbothpollenandseedviabilityresultedfromopenpollinationofplantsofallploidylevelstheyexamined(diploidspentaploids).Theysuggestedthatnormalsexualunionwasresponsibleindiploidsbutthatapomixis(reproductionwithoutfertilisationofgametes)wasresponsibleinplantsofotherploidylevels.HoweverthisisunlikelytobethecaseasthereviewofliteraturebyStirton(1977)foundnoevidenceforapomixis.Instead,SpiesandStirton(1982)foundnormalsexualembryosindiploid,triploidandtetraploidplantsbutnonormalsexualembryosineitherpentaploidorhexaploidvarieties.ThereareconflictingreportsabouttheabilityofL.camaratoselfpollinate(Dayetal.2003).

Spies(1984a)recordeddifferencesinpollenviabilitywhenstudyingdiploid,triploidandtetraploidplantsinSouthAfrica.Forexample,theaverageandrangeinpollenviabilitiesfordiploidplantswas59.95%(30.8585.25%),fortriploidplantswas36.21%(27.3044.38%)andfortetraploidplantswas63.3%(16.0183.22%). Neal(1999)recordedthat65%ofpollenfromtheweedycommonpinkvarietyofL.camarawasviableincontrasttothe2%ofpollenfromaL.camaraxL.depressahybrid.

Insummarisingseveralreferencesandotherobservations,Swarbricketal.(1998)statedthatanaverageof36.748%fruitsetoccurredinopenpollinatedL.camarainflorescences,witheachaveraging32.6flowers.Becausethereareusuallytwoinflorescencespernode,thetotalnumberoffruitproducedundergoodgrowingconditionsmaybeashighasseveralthousandpermetre.DatafromthePhilippinesindicatedthat24fruitswereproducedperinflorescenceandthattherewere511inflorescencesperplantresultingin12,264fruitsperplant.Thenumberoffruitthathavefullyformedembryosmaybeaslittleas36%however(Graaff1987). WhiletherehavebeenfewspecificstudiesontheinfluenceofthefruitpulponthegerminationofL.camaraseeds,bothGraaff(1987)andSwarbricketal.(1998)presentevidencethatadelayorinhibitionmechanismoccurs.Neal(1999)alsoindicatedthat0.162%offloretsproducedseedsinthesupposedlysterileL.camaraxL.depressahybridsheexamined.

TheseedbankdensitiesofL.camarahavebeenthesubjectoflimitedresearch.WhileGentleandDuggin(1997b,1998)indicatedthatlowdensitiesof1.43.4seeds/m2werefound,muchlargerdensitiesof5993674seeds/m2havebeendeterminedfromanotherstudy(VivianSmithetal.2006). Itisimportanttonotethatonlyasmallproportionoftheseseeds(616%)wereviableaseithergerminableordormantseeds.

vanOosterhout(2004)summarisedresearchthatindicatedupto50%ofL.camaraseedwillremainviableunderdryconditionsforuptotwoyearsafterdispersalwhileotherstudieshaveindicatedthatviableseedmaypersistforuptofiveyears(G.VivianSmithpers.comm.).Despitethesestudies,Dayetal.(2003)indicatedthatverylittlewasknownabouttheseedbankdynamicsofL.camara. Thesestudiesareimportantastheyplaceatimeframeforongoingcontrolfollowingtheremovalofdenseinfestations.

O’DonnellandPanetta(2000)indicatedthattheviabilityofL.montevidensisseedsdecreasedtobetween3044%afteroneyearofburialat12cmofdepthwhilethoseplantedonthesoilsurfacehadonly1018%viabilityafterasimilartime.O’Donnell(2002)addedthatallsurfacesownseedwasdeadaftertwoyearsbutthatupto20%ofburiedseedwasstillviable.TheseresultsindicatethattheseedofL.montevidensisisrelativelyshortlivedinthesoil.Inaddition,theseedpulpormesocarpinhibitedseedgerminationupto100daysaftersowingbuthadnoimpactafteroneyear,probablyasaresultofnaturaldecay(O’DonnellandPanetta2000).Aproportionofseedswillgerminatewiththepulpsurroundingthemhowever.

Plantsgrowrapidlyunderfavourableconditionsofsoil,humidity,temperatureandlightandmaygrowyearroundundertheseconditions.InmanyareasL.camaraisseasonallydefoliatedbybiologicalcontrolagentsbutplantsrecoveroncecoolweatherresultsinawaneininsectnumbers(DayandHannanJones1999;Dayetal.2003). Lantanacamaraisaperennialplantshootingorregrowingvigorouslyfromdormantbasalbudsifshootsareremovedbyfire,herbicide,physicalremoval,droughtoriffrostedoff.Inthesecasesplantscanflowerwithinseveralmonthsunderfavourableconditions(Swarbricketal.1998). PlantsofL.camaraplantsareverylonglivedwithconstantrenewalofstemsfromtheplantbase,especiallyifrainfalloccursafterstemdeath(vanOosterhout2004).

Plantswilldieunderprolongedstressfulconditions,forexample,intenseorprolongeddrought,orfromshading(Swarbricketal.1998). ParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)statedthatnewcanesofL.camaraareproducedfromthecrownofexistingplants,fromlateralrootsinearlyspringandthatshallowlateralssuckerifdamagedorbroken.Suckeringmayoccurafterplantsarephysicallyremoved,oftenbybulldozing,withlargepiecesoflateralrootsreshooting,especiallyundergoodsoilmoistureconditions(SaintSmith1964;Swarbrick1982;WaterhouseandNorris1987;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001). OneestimateplacesthenumberofnewshootsfoundafterclearingasiteinsclerophyllwoodlandinnorthernNSWthatarosefromsuckeringat30%(B.Johnsonpers.comm.).TheseobservationsareincontrasttoSwarbricketal.(1998)whostatedthatnosuckeringhasbeenobservedbythoseauthors.Furthermoretheyindicatedthatprostratestemswithadventitiousrootsmayhavebeenmistakenforrootsuckersaftertheyhad

producedvigorousshootsfromthenodes.Giventhedivergenceofopinionontheroleofsuckeringfromlateralroots,furtherresearchisrequired.Lantanacamaracanbepropagatedfromstemtiporhardwoodstemcuttingsorevenleafmaterialifplantedintomoistrootingmediaorsoil(Swarbricketal.1998;Neal1999).

Lantanamontevidensisreproducesbyseedandbylayeringrootingatthestemnodeswhencoveredinmoistleaflitterorsoil(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001). Henderson(1969)recordedapollenviabilityofapproximately65%inL.montevidensisincontrasttotheornamentalvarietyHenderson(1969)examinedwhichwaslessthan6%.Similarly,Neal(1999)indicatedthatpollenviabilitiesof82%fromtheweedyvarietypopulationsofL.montevidensissheassessedand1416%fromthepopulationsoftwoornamentalL.montevidensisvarieties.ThedifferencesbetweenthestudiesarelikelytobeduetotherestrictednumberofpopulationscollectedbytheHendersonstudy.

PlantsofL.montevidensisareabletoflowerandsetfruitthroughouttheyear,generallyfromearlysummermidwinterinQld(O’Donnell2002).SeedproductioninL.montevidensisgenerallyoccursfiveweeksafterflowering(O’Donnell2002).VariousauthorsincludingHenderson(1969)statedthattheweedyvarietyofL.montevidensishaveahighproductionoffertileseed.Forexample,O’Donnell(2002)foundthatyearlyseedproductionvariedbetween4,965and5,175seeds/m2andwhileeachdrupehadtwoseeds,generallyonly30%ofdrupesproducedasecondseedling.Attwater(1980)reportedthatthewoodyseedcoatofL.montevidensiswasimpermeabletocertaingassesandchemicalsandhencepreventedseedgermination.

Henderson(1969)andWebbetal.(1988)recordedthatornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensisdidnotproducefruitinAustraliaandNewZealandrespectively.Incontrast,Neal(1999)demonstratedthat0.421%offloretsofthepurplefloweringornamentalvarietysheexaminedproducedfruitwhileleafmaterialofbothornamentalandweedyvarietiesofL.montevidensiswasabletogiverisetonewplants.PopulationsproducingfruitweregenerallyincloseproximitytoweedypopulationsofL.camaraand/orL.montevidensis.

ItisnotknownhowlongindividualplantsofL.camaramaylive(vanOosterhout2004)butO’Donnell(2002)suggestedthatplantsofL.montevidensismaysurviveforatleastfiveyears.

DISPERSALParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)notedthatL.camaraisdispersedbyseedsandbysuckers.Suckeringandseedlinggrowthincreasesthesizeanddensityofexistinginfestationswithinandontheedgesofthickets.Seedsareimportantinlongdistancedispersalofthisweed,especiallyafterbirdandmammalingestion(Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).AlargenumberofnativeandexoticbirdshavebeenrecordedasfeedingonL.camarafruitsinAustralia.Theseincludedspeciessuchasthebrownpigeon,crow,cuckooandemeralddoves,emu,figbird,fruitdoves,Indianmynah,Lewin’shoneyeater,littlewattlebird,piedcurrawong,purplecrownedpigeon,rainbowlorikeet,redcrownedpigeon,regentandsatinbowerbird,silvereye,sparrow,spinycheekedhoneyeater,starling,variedtrillerandwongapigeon(Liddy1985;LoynandFrench1991;Swarbricketal.1998;Carter2000;StansburyandVivianSmith2003;vanOosterhout2004). SomeauthorsindicatedthatingestionincreasedthegerminationofL.camaraseedsoncetheyhadbeenexcreted(vanOosterhout2004).Initialinfestationsfrombirddispersedseedsarecommonunderperching,roostingandsheltertrees,fencelinesandotherperchsites(Swarbricketal.1998). Theseisolatedplantsformthefocioflaterinvasionsoftheweed.

LantanacamaraseedsareprobablyspreadbyawiderangeofotheranimalsinAustraliaincludingrodents,cattle,sheep,goats,horses,foxes,pigs,kangaroosandlizards(Swarbricketal.1998;Dayetal.2003;Stock2004).Whileingestionaidedspreadisgenerallylocalised,distancesofupto1kmormorearepossible(Swarbricketal.1998).

StudiesregardingtheroleofbirdsindispersingL.camaraseedsareneeded,inparticularstudiesonbehaviourandfeedingpreferencesandthedistancesdifferentbirdstravelaftereating(Dayetal.2003). OnenotableexceptionisthestudybyWillsonandCrome(1989)whichfoundthatseedsofmanyinternally

vertebratedispersedspeciessuchasLantanawerefounddispersedupto85metresintorainforest. GROWTHANDAnotherstudybyVivianSmithetal.(2006)indicatedthattheseedfeedingflyO.lantanaedamagedthefruitandseedofL.camaraensuringthatlessseedwasspreadbybirds.

Ensbey(2003)recordedthatL.camaracanbespreadinwater,incontaminatedsoilandonmachinery,aswellasaccidentallyonpeople.NewplantsariseviavegetativereproductionfromgardenwastecontainingplantmaterialofeitherL.camaraorL.montevidensiswhenitisnotdisposedofproperly(Neal1999;Ensbey2003). Thetradeofnurseryplantshas,andcontinuestoberesponsibleforthespreadofthisspecies.

TheseedsofL.montevidensisaredispersedbyanumberofmeans.ParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)notedthattheseedsarewidelyspreadbyfruiteatinganimalsandbirds,bywaterflowingacrossthesoilespeciallyafterheavyrainandinmudattachedtohooves,bootsandmachinery.O’Donnell(2002)alsonotedthatL.montevidensisseedsfloatandthatgulliesandwatercoursesweresusceptibletoinfestationasaresult.Inparticular,O’DonnellandPanetta(2000)recordedthatparrots,currawongs,whitecockatoos,crowsandemusatetheripefruitofthespecies.Paleheadedrosellashavealsobeenobservedeatingthefruitofthisspecies(S.Csurhespers.comm.).Initialinfestationsfrombirdswerecommonundernestingandroostingsites,especiallyaroundtreesandfences(O’Donnell2002).O’Donnell(2002)furtherindicatedthatantstransportandburyL.montevidensisseedsintheirnests.ThepresenceofpulpsurroundingseedsdoesnotprecludethegerminationofL.montevidensisseedsindicatingthatpriorbirdingestionisnotarequirementforsuccessfulgermination(O’DonnellandPanetta2000).Lantanamontevidensisisalsospreadwhenviableseedspassthroughthedigestivetractsofgrazingcattle(O’Donnell2002).

Swarbrick(1986)notedthattheweedyvarietyofL.montevidensismayalsoreproducebystemcuttingsandbythedivisionofestablishedplants.Incontrast,theornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensisappeartohaveonlybeenpropagatedandspreadbystemcuttings(Swarbrick1986).ThesizeanddensityofexistingcoloniesofL.montevidensisincreasesasstemsrootatthenodesandasseedlingsdevelopwithinandnearexistingthickets.

DEVELOPMENTThefollowinginformationhasbeenextractedfromSwarbricketal.(1998)unlessotherwisenoted.Lantanacamaraisveryplasticinitsresponsetolightintensity.Seedlingdensitiesrangefromlessthanonetoseveralpersquaremetrewithplantsatlowerdensityproducingroundedplantswhilethoseathigherdensityproducingmoreuprightplantsthatcompeteforlight.Plantstendtodominateseveralsquaremetresasadults,growingthroughandoverotherplants,oftenproducingimpenetrablethickets,shadingoutotherplantsandoutcompetinganyL.camaraseedlingsthatmayemerge.vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthatL.camarawilltoleratepartialbutnotcompleteshading.Newshootsemergefromthebaseofhealthyplantswhileoldershadedstemslosevigouranddie.Prostratestemsmayrootatthenodesifcoveredbymoistdebris,sometimesdevelopingintovigorousdaughterplants.

Lantanamontevidensisisabletopersistunderperiodsofextendeddroughtandhastheabilitytogrowandreproduceinsituationsfromfullsunlighttoshade(O’Donnell2002).Althoughthedroughtpersistenceofthisspeciesiswellestablished,evidencesuggeststhatthespeciesgrowsandspreadsatafasterrateunderwetterconditions(O’Donnell2002).

HABITATClimatic requirements Lantanacamaragrowswellinarangeofwarmerareasoftheworld,particularlytemperate,subtropicalandtropicalareas(Swarbricketal.1998). Growthdoesnotoccurbelow5oCandtheplantisfrostsensitive(Thaman1974;Stirton1977;Winder1980,inSwarbricketal.1998)withseverefrostskillingtheleavesandstems(vanOosterhout2004).Stirton(1977)notedthatL.camaraseldomoccurredwherethemeanannualsurfacetemperaturewasbelow12.5oCinSouthAfrica,whileGraaff(1986)recordedthatsomevarietiescouldwithstandminorfrostssolongasthesewereinfrequent.TheuppertemperaturelimitforgrowthforL.camarahasnotbeeninvestigated.

PopulationsofL.camaracoverawidegeographicandclimaticrangeinAustraliafromDarwininthenorthtoOrbostinthesouth(vanOosterhout2004)andfromareasreceivingmorethan3,500mm(DayandHannanJones1999)toareasreceiving650mmmeanannualrainfall(BartholomewandArmstrong1978). Lantanacamaragrowsbestunderconditionsofconstantrainfallorsoilmoisture,particularlyinareaswhichreceiveinexcessof900mmofrain(Swarbricketal.1998;Ensbey2003). The650mmisohyetisprobablythelimitofthespecieswestofwhichlowtemperaturesanddrysoilindependentlyrestrictthegrowthofthespecies(Swarbricketal.1998). Swarbricketal.(1998)postulatedthatbothofthesefactorswereresponsibleforlimitingthedistributionofthisspeciestoareaswestoftheGreatDividingRange.Whilethesefactorsarelikelytocontributetotherestricteddistributionoftheweedfurtherwestwards,lowtemperaturesanddrysoilarefactorsthatarecommonintheeasternpartsoftheGreatDividingRangeandincoastalareas.Furthermore,L.camaracantotoleratebothdrytohumidclimates(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001),althoughfloweringgenerallyoccursunderconditionsofhighsoilmoistureandairhumidity(Swarbricketal.1998). ItisthereforelikelythatotherfactorsareresponsibleforitscurrentdistributioninAustraliaandthesefactorsneedtobequantifiedbeforethepotentialdistributionofthisspeciescanbevalidated.

TherearetwocontrastingtheoriesastowhyL.camarahasnotbecomewidelynaturalisedinVicandsouthernAustralia.Severalauthorsindicatedthatthelimitingfactormaybemoreregularfrostsorlowertemperatures(Conn1999;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;Dayetal.2003). Bywayofcontrast,Carr(1993)statedthatinVicneithertemperaturenormoisturewerelimitingtothegrowth,floweringandfruitingofestablishedL.camaraplants,butthatseedgerminationandseedlingestablishmentrarelyoccurredbecausesufficientmoisturewasnotavailablewhensummertemperaturesweresufficientforgermination.Thoseauthorsstatedthatoutsideofgardensituationsonlyonenaturalisedpopulationwasknowninasituationreceivingrunofffromroads.OtherweaklynaturalisedpopulationsinVicappeartohavebeenfoundmorerecentlyasoutlinedinMunir(1996)andConn(1999).EithertemperatureormoisturemayexplainwhythespeciesisnotmorewidelynaturalisedinWAalthoughalackofsuitablemoisturetoensureplantestablishmentisthemorelikely.

Dayetal.(2003)outlinedthattherewassomedifferenceintheenvironmentaltolerancesofdifferentvarietiesinAustraliawiththecommonpinkweedyvarietyfoundathigheraltitudesandlatitudeswhereasthepinkedgedredvarietywasrestrictedtowarmerareas. Incontrast,Ensbey(2005)indicatedthatthepinkweedyvarietyofL.camarawasfoundthroughouttheentirerangeofthespeciesthroughoutNSW,butthatthepinkedgedredvarietieswererelativelycommoninnortheasternNSWandwererarelyfoundsouthofthemidnorthcoastandHunterareas.Furthermore,Ensbey(2005)notedthattrueredvarietiesofthespecieswererestrictedtothenorthcoastofNSW(Clarence,CoffsHarbour,Bellinger,NambuccaandKempseycouncilareas)buthadthepotentialtospreadfurthernorthandsouth.TheorangeandwhitevarietiesofL.camarafoundinQldwererelativelyrareinNSW(A.Clarkpers.comm.)

Lantanacamaragrowsfromsealevelto1000metresinelevationineasternAustraliaandupto2000minotherplaces(Thaman1974;Munir1996;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Swarbricketal.(1998)notedthatalthoughmostareassusceptibletoinfestationprobablyalreadyhadthespeciespresent,thatfurtherspreadofthisspeciescouldbeexpectedwithintheseareas,particularlyalongthefringesofexistinginfestationsandintotheriversystemsontheGulfofCarpentaria,theNTandWA.Webbetal.(1988)indicatedthatwhilebothL.camaraandL.montevidensisoccurredinthenorthernNewZealandL.montevidensiswasmoretolerantofcoldandisgrownfurthersouthasagardenplant.

Soils WhileL.camaragrowsbestonrichorganicsoilsitwillgrowonarangeofsoiltypesincludingstonyhillsidesandnearlypuresandsolongasthereisasourceofsoilmoisture(Winder1980,inSwarbricketal.1998;HumphriesandStanton1992;Munir1996).Thespeciesgrowswellondeeper,welldrainedclaysoilsofbasaltic,metamorphicorgraniticorigin(HumphriesandStanton1992).Thaman(1974)summarisedevidencethattherootsofthisspeciestendedtorotinwaterloggedsoilsandthatithadaverylowtolerancetosoilsalinity.

KleinschmidtandJohnson(1977)indicatedthatL.montevidensisiscommononshallow,stonysoils

inslopingareasthattendedtodryout.Incontrast,Munir(1996)statedthatL.montevidensisgrewinwelldrainedalluvialorloamsoils,anobservationalsomadebyO’Donnell(2002).

DISTRIBUTIONINAUSTRALIACurrent distribution

Lantana camara

LantanacamaracanbefoundincoastalandsubcoastalareasofAustralia(Figure10).AlongtheeastcoastofAustralia,thespeciescangenerallybefoundfromEden37o04’SinsouthernNSWtoCapeMelville(northofCooktown)14o12’SinQld.ThisnorthernmostrecordislikelytoincludeonlylargeinfestationsbecauseMunir(1996)statedthatherbariumrecordsofL.camarahavebeencollectedfromthetipofCapeYorkPeninsulaandfromtheTorresStrait.WhileClarketal.(2004)reportedthatinfestationsofL.camaracanbefoundontheNSW/Vicborder,otherinformationsuggeststhatveryfewinfestationsarefoundsouthoftheEurobodallaandMountDromedaryareasnearNarooma(36o13’S,Harding2005;M.Michelmorepers.comm.).TheseinfestationsarearoundBermagui,Tathra,PambulaandEden.ThesouthernmostinfestationontheeastcoastofAustraliaisprobablynearOrbost(37o42’S)incoastalVic(vanOosterhout2004).LantanacamaraappearstohavebecomeweaklyestablishedasagardenescapeinotherpartsofVic(Conn1999)andhasbeenrecordednearFrankston(38o09’S;Munir1996).

InNSW,Conn(1992)recordsthepresenceofL.camaraonthenorth,centralandsouthcoast,LordHoweandNorfolkIslands.Thespecieswasprobablyintroducedtotheseislandsinthemidtolate1800’s(Swarbrick1986). ThepinkfloweringvarietyofL.camaraisthemostwidespreadalongtheNSWandQldcoastwhiletheredfloweringvarietyiscommononthemidandfarnorthcoastofNSW(Ensbey2005).AredfloweringvarietyiscommonintheRichmondandKurrajongarea,northwestofSydney(AuldandMedd1987;McMillan1989;pers.obs.).

InQld,L.camaracanbechieflyfoundinallcoastalareasnorthtoCooktown(Figure10)andoftenbeyond.Inaddition,thespecieshasbeenrecordedonseveralislandsalongtheGreatBarrierReef(Munir1996).Seawright(1965)indicatedthatredfloweredvarietieswerecommoninfarnorthQueenslandaroundCairnsandbetweenKeppelBayandBroadSoundinCentralQueensland.TheremainderofcoastalQldareashadpinkfloweringvarietieswiththeexceptionofthewhitevarietythatoccurredintheeasternslopesoftheGreatDividingRangeinsoutheasternQld.AnumberofauthorsincludingSeawright(1965)havenotedthepresenceofanorangeyellowvarietyfoundgrowingaroundTownsvillebutnotelsewhere.vanOosterhout(2004)alsoindicatedthattheweedispresentinEmerald(centralQld)andWeipaonCapeYorkPeninsulawhileClark(2006)indicatedthespecieshasbeenfoundatvariousplacesininlandQldincludingSurat(Warrooshire,southernQld),inBelyandoandJerichoshiresincentralQldandinEtheridgeshireinnorthernQld.ScatteredinfestationsofL.camaracanbefoundintheTorresStraitIslands(Munir1996;Swarbricketal.1998,vanOosterhout2004).

LantanacamaracanbefoundintheNT,especiallyaroundDarwin,Maningrida(northcoastal),ontheGovePeninsula,AdelaideriverandonMelvilleIsland(Munir1996;JeffreyandReady1999;vanOosterhout2004). IsolatedoccurrencesalsooccurinotherstatesofAustralia(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Forexample,L.camaracanbefoundinsouthwestWA,especiallyinwetterareasaroundPerth,FremantleManjimupandAlbany,aroundBromeandGeraldton

Figure10.The current distribution of L. camara in Australia (Source: van Oosterhout (2004)).

andsouthofKununurra(Munir1996;Husseyetal.1997;vanOosterhout2004,Clark2006).Incontrast,Husseyetal.(1997)indicatedthattheKununurrainfestationwaseradicatedin1995.ScatteredinfestationsofL.camaracanalsobefoundintheSA,especiallyaroundAdelaide(JessopandToelken1986;Swarbricketal.1998;Blood2001;vanOosterhout2004). Swarbrick(1986)citedpersonalcommunicationthatindicatedthatalthoughLantanaspecieshavebeenwidelygrowningardensinTasmania,theyhaveneverescapedfromcultivation.

Lantana montevidensis

LantanamontevidensiscanalsobefoundincoastalandsubcoastalareasofAustralia(Figure11).AlongtheeastcoastofAustralia,thespeciescanbefoundfromNowra34o53’SinsouthernNSWtoCairns16o55’SinnorthernQld(Munir1996;Neal1999).AnumberofauthorsindicatedthatL.montevidensiscanbefoundonthenorthcoast(aroundCasino,MurwillumbahandByronBay)andcentralcoastofNSWnorthfromSydney(Everist1981;Swarbrick1986;AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;O’Donnell2002).Thespeciesisalsofoundonthenorthwesternslopes(Tamworth)andsouthofSydney(Conn1992;Australia’sVirtualHerbarium2007).

LantanamontevidensisiscommoninsoutheastQld,mainlyfromRockhamptontotheNSW/Qldborder,againincoastalandsubcoastalareassuchasthe

Figure11.The current distribution of L. montevidensis in Australia (Source: Australia’s Virtual Herbarium (2007)).

Moreton,WideBay,BurnettandPortCurtispastoraldistricts(Seawright1965;KleinschmidtandJohnson1977;Everist1981;AuldandMedd1987;O’Donnelletal.1999;O’Donnell2002).Forexample,Seawright(1965)indicatedthatL.montevidensisgrewthicklyinpaddocksaroundBeenleighandIpswichinsoutheasternQld,O’Donnell(2002)recordedtheproblemsthespeciescausedintheBurnettwhileDayetal.(1999)recordedtheweedwasasevereproblemincentralQld.RecordsshownaturalisationinthecoastalpastoraldistrictsofSouthKennedy,NorthKennedy(aroundTownsville)andCook(aroundCairns)andtheinlanddistrictofLeichhardt(Hnatiuk1990;Munir1996;Australia’sVirtualHerbarium2007).

ThespeciesisusedasanornamentalinsometownsintheNT(Munir1996;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001)andhasbeenrecordedasaweedinothersituationsinDarwin(JeffreyandReady1999).O’Donnell(2002)notedthatornamentalvarietiesofthespeciescanbefoundfromTorresStraittoSydney,inMelbourneandAdelaide.

TherearetwootherherbariumrecordsofL.montevidensisinAustralia,oneinKununurra(WA)andtheothernorthofMelbourne(Vic)(Australia’sVirtualHerbarium2007).Inaddition,Conn(1999)indicatedthatthespecieshasbecomeweaklyestablishedawayfromgardensinVic.

Potential distribution LantanacamarahasthepotentialtospreadfurtherwithinAustralia.Itisprobablethatfurtherspreadwithinthecurrentdistributionofthisweedwilloccurasuninfestedareasareinvadedandasincreasesindensityoccurwithininfestedareas.Inthebroadestsense,Dayetal.(2003)statedthatL.camaracanbefoundbetweenthelatitudes35oNandS,eventhoughitismostcommonlyfoundintropical,subtropicalandtemperateareas.Incomparison,Australiastretchesfromapproximately10o30’SonCapeYorkto43o30’SatthebottomofTasmania.

TheecologicallimitationsofL.camaraarenotwellunderstoodandneedtobeinvestigated.TworeferencesindicatedthatL.camaraisnowpresentattheheadwatersofthemajorwesternflowingriversafterwestwardsexpansioninsoutheasternQldduringwetyearsinthe1970’s(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001;vanOosterhout2004).Personal

communicationindicatedthattheseinfestationsarepresentintheupperCondaminecatchmentbutthere IMPORTANCEissomedoubtastothefurtherspreadofthespecieswestward(P.Blackmorepers.comm.;A.Clarkpers.comm.).ThespreadoftheweedintowesternNSWhasbeenpostulatedalongripariancorridorsandasaresultofpoorlandmanagementdecisions(vanOosterhout2004).Furthermore,Ensbey(2003)notedthatL.camarahasthepotentialtospreadintoVicwhiletheCooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement(2003)consideredthatthespeciesisabletospreadwestoftheGreatDividingRangeexpandingitsrangeintosouthernVic,SAandsouthwesternWA.Husseyetal.(1997)furtherindicatedthatL.camarahasthepotentialtobecomenaturalisedinWA.

Figure12outlinesthepotentialdistributionofL.camarabasedontemperature,rainfall,seasonalextremes,burningregimesandsoilmoisture.ThismodelleddatashowsthatL.camaramaybeabletospreadacrossCapeYorkPeninsula,andthroughoutthenorthernpartsoftheNT,theKimberleyregion,furtherinsouthwestWAandVicaswellasfurtherinlandinsouthernandeasternAustralia.Althoughthespecieshasnotyetspreadintotheseareasitspotentialasasleeperweedmayallowittospreadsometimeinthefuture.

Neal(1999)indicatedthatL.montevidensisisintheearlystagesofspreadinAustralia. ThatauthormappedthepotentialdistributionofL.montevidensisviaCLIMEXandconcludedthatatleast30%ofQldand10%ofNSWwereatthreatofseriousinvasion.O’Donnell(2002)notedthatsinceweedyandornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensishavesimilarclimaticpreferencesthattheweedyvarietyofthespeciescouldbeexpectedtospreadbeyonditspresentrangeinAustralia.Itisimportanttonotehoweverthattheecologicallimitationsofthespeciesarenotknownandrequirefurtherresearchattention.HencegiventhecurrentsparsedistributionitwouldbereasonabletoexpectthatthespecieswillcontinuetoinvadecoastalandsubcoastalareasofNSWandQld,particularlyaroundareaswhereitcurrentlyoccurs.ExpansionontheDarlingDownsinQldandinthenorthandcentralwesternplainsofNSWmaybepossible,asmaybefurtherexpansionofthespeciesinsouthernNSWandVicsincethespeciesseemsmorecoldtolerantthanL.camarainNewZealand(Webbetal.1988).

Detrimental SincetheintroductionofL.camaratoAustralia,infestationshaveexpandedtooveratleastfourmillionhectares,2.5millionofthisinQldand1.5millionhectaresinNSW(Culvenor1985;Ensbey2005).Thecostsoftheseinfestationshavebeenconservativelyestimatedat$2.2millionperannum(Culvenor1985),althoughitislikelythatthisestimatedoesnotaccountfortheweedsmanyenvironmentalimpacts.AmoreuptodateestimateonthecostofcontrollingL.camarabyprimaryindustriesbasedinQldis$10millionperannum(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).

TheweedyvarietiesofL.camaraarewidespreadweeds,especiallynearhabitation,inpasturesandarableland,indisturbedgrasslands,woodlands,sclerophyllforestsandrainforest,alongroadsidesandfencelines,alongwaterwaysandinwasteland(AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;Vranjic2000;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).

Incontrast,Dayetal.(1999)outlinedevidencesuggestingthatL.montevidensisinfestedhundredsofthousandsofhectaresthroughoutcentralQld.InfestationsofL.montevidensiscurrentlyvaryintheirseverityandimpact.OneofthemostseverallyaffectedareasistheNorthBurnettwheresevereinfestationshavedecreasedgrazinganimalcarryingcapacitiessoastothreatentheviabilityoftheseenterprisesresultingindecreasesinlandvalues(O’Donnell2002).Neal(1999)alsostatedthatinfestationsofthisspecieshaveresultedinsignificantlanddevaluationandlossofincome.

Figure12.The potential distribution of L. camara in Australia (Source: van Oosterhout (2004)).

Lantanamontevidensisisanincreasinglyprominentweednearhabitation,inpasturesanddegraded

andguineapigs.

grasslands,inwoodlandsandsclerophyllforestsandonalluvialplains,inroadsidecuttings,alongfencelinesandriverbanksandonrockyoutcrops(Swarbrick1986;Munir1996;O’DonnellandPanetta2000;J.Hoskingpers.comm.).ItisimportanttonotethatinfestationsofL.montevidensisoftenoccurininaccessibleterrainandthatthisinaccessibilityresultsinlimitedweedmanagementoptions(O’Donnell2002).Theimpactofbothspecieswillbeexaminedinmoredetailbelow.

Pastures

LantanacamaraisatroublesomeweedofpasturethroughoutmanycountriesthroughoutthePacificandIndianoceanareas(Holmetal.1977). MuchofthefourmillionhaoutlinedaboveispasturecountryineasternAustralia.Inmanyinstancestheweedhasoverrunpastureecosystems,shadingoutmoredesirablespeciesandreducingtheirproduction,oftenproducingpurestandsthatareinaccessibletopeopleandlivestock.ThesetraitsarealsosharedbytherelatedspeciesL.montevidensis,whichin1997hadinfestedaround150,000haofpasturelandwithpotentialforfurtherexponentialspread(Flannery1997,inO’Donnell2002).Bothspecieshavebeenconsistentlyrecognisedascausingsignificanteconomiccosttograzingindustries(Grice2002;Barkeretal.2006).

LantanacamaraisgenerallyunpalatabletolivestockandallbutthreeofthevarietiespresentinAustraliaaretoxictocattleandsheep(Everist1981;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Inparticular,Everist(1981)statedthatallredfloweredvarietieswiththeexceptionofonefromMackayhavebeenfoundtobetoxic.OtherredfloweredvarietiesfromnorthQldarelesstoxicthanvarietiesfromcentralandsouthernQldandNSW.Onlytwosmallfloweredpinkvarietieswereshowntobenontoxic,thesebeingthecommonweedypinkvarietyandasimilarvarietyfoundaroundBundaberg.Alllargefloweringpinkvarietiesweretoxic.Everist(1981)presentedfurtherinformationthatindicatedthetoxicityofL.camarainparticularareasmaybearesultofgeneticfactorsnotenvironmentalfactorsandthattherandomintroductionofhorticulturalvarietieswasthemostprobableexplanationfortheregionaldistributionofvariousvarieties.Dayetal.(2003)alsosummarisedevidenceoftoxicitytootheranimalsincludinggoats,horses,dogs,buffalo,redkangaroos

IngestingplantmaterialoftoxicvarietiesofL.camarawillcausearangeofsymptomsoftenstartingwithin24hoursofasinglefeedingevent(Everist1981).Symptomsincludedepression,alossofappetite,sluggishness,constipation,frequenturination,diarrhoeaandjaundiceintheearlystagesdevelopingintophotosensitisation,inflammationofthemuzzleandmouth,damagetotheliver,kidneys,stomachandintestines,unthriftiness,internalparalysisandoftendeathinonetofourweeks(SeawrightandHrdlicka1977;Everist1981).Severefacialitchingcanresultininjuryandblindnessafterrubbing.LampandCollet(1989)indicatedthatwhitefacedcattlearemoresusceptibletopoisoningthanothers,perhapsasresultofincreasedphotosensitisation.EstimatesofcattlepoisoningduetoL.camaravarywidelyfromatleast1500cattleaffectedperannuminQld(Culvenor1985)toanestimated500600affectedperannuminonenorthernNSWcoastalRuralLandsProtectionBoardareaalone,Grafton,(Officer2002).

SincegrazingofL.camarainquantityonlyoccursinsituationsoflowfeedavailabilityorwhennewand/oryoungcattleareintroducedtograzinglandwherethespeciesispresent,poisoningcanusuallybeavoidedbyprovidingadequatefeedandspellingnewcattleinL.camarafreeareasafterpurchase.Inaddition,thesmellofherbicidetreatedL.camaramayattractgrazingfromlivestockwhenpastureisscarce(vanOosterhout2004).Livestockthatarebredinareasinfestedwiththeweedgenerallyavoidgrazingthespeciesbutlimitedtestfeedingmayoccurattimesandthisdoesnotappeartoresultinpoisoning(Everist1981;vanOosterhout2004;B.Johnsonpers.comm.).

Aswellasoutcompetingmanypasturespecies,L.camaraalsoimpedesthemovementoflivestockduringwateringandmustering(Swarbricketal.1998). Culvenor(1985)estimatedthattheannualcostofL.camaratopasturestobe$7.7millionmadeupof1500cattledeaths($0.5million),4.5%reducedperformance($2million),7.3%pastureloss($3million)and$2.2millionincontrolcosts.Theseestimateshaveundoubtedlybeensurpassed.

WhileL.montevidensisgrowsonshallowandoftenstonysoils,itcanbecomeanaggressiveweedinpasturesituations(O’DonnellandPanetta2000;Bray2002).O’Donnell(2002)statedthatwhilethe

abundanceofL.montevidensisisoftenlinkedwithovergrazing,evidencesuggestedthatthespeciesmorereadilyestablishedinundisturbedorunderlighttomediumgrazedconditions.OnlyafterL.montevidensisisestablisheddoesovergrazingappearfavouritsspread(O’Donnell2002).AnumberofauthorsindicatedthatL.montevidensisspreadsinnativeandunimprovedpastureswhentheseareweakenedunderdroughtconditions(Everist1981;AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;O’Donnelletal.1999;O’Donnell2002). ParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)indicatedthatL.montevidensisisacompetitiveweedthatreducedavailablegrazingareasandhencepastureproductivity.

AlthoughsomeauthorsindicatedthatL.montevidensisisalsotoxictograzinganimals(AuldandMedd1987;Conn1992;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003),othersindicatedthatthespeciesisnottoxic(Seawright1965;DowlingandMcKenzie1993).O’Donnell(2002)postulatedthatifcattlehadbeengrazingpastureinfestedwithL.montevidensissincebirththenresistanceorimmunitymayhavedevelopedwhereasintroducedcattlemaynothavethisresistance.Everist(1981)notedthatthetoxicityofthespeciesrequiredfurtherstudy.

Naturalecosystems

Lantanacamara,andtoalesserextentL.montevidensis,poseasignificantthreattotheconservationofanumberofecosystemsfoundontheeastcoastofAustralia(Sindel2000;Randall2001).Forexample,BatianoffandButler(2001)rankedL.camaraasthemostinvasiveandfrequentweedonnaturalareasinsoutheastQueensland,whileL.montevidensiswasranked18th.EcosystemsthreatenedbyL.camaraincludefrontalduneandnearbycommunitytypessuchasmangroves,sedgeandheathlands,woodlandsassociatedwithmelaleucas,banksiasandcasuarinas,aswellopenwoodlandandforestcommunities(BensonandHowell1994;StockandWild2002;vanOosterhout2004).Inparticular,L.camaraisconsideredaseriousinvaderofdisturbedecosystemsthroughoutAustraliaandaroundtheworld(Swarbricketal.1998).Furthermore,thespeciesisaseriousthreattoseveralWorldHeritagelistedareasincludingtheWetTropicsofnorthernQld,FraserIslandandtheGreaterBlueMountainsregion(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).

ThecapacityofL.camaratoinvadeAustralianforestecosystemshasbeenthesubjectofconsiderabledebate.Onreviewingtheavailableevidence,StockandWild(2002)concludedthattherewas“littleevidenceofitscapacitytodisplaceforestsintheabsenceofexternaldisturbances”. Indeed,theconverseappearedtobetrueinthatitwaslikelythatrainforestspeciesactuallysuppressedthefurtherexpansionofL.camarafromisolatedcanopygaps,inparticularbydensecanopyshading(Stock2004).ThiswouldparticularlybethecaseintropicalrainforestinnorthernQldwhereL.camarapersistsalongtheedges(includingroadsidesandcreeks)andincanopyopenings(HumphriesandStanton1992),andinsubtropicalrainforestsinsoutheastQld,bothhighrainfallenvironments(Stock2004).vanOosterhout(2004)notedthatL.camarathrivesalongwaterwaysbecauseoftheincreasedavailabilityofsoilmoistureandlight.

DisturbanceappearstobeoneofthekeyaspectsintheintroductionandestablishmentofL.camarainforeststhatreceivelessrainfall,forexampledryrainforest(Fenshametal.1994;GentleandDuggin1997b),warmtemperaterainforests,wetsclerophyllforest,andeucalyptforestsandwoodland(Lamb1988;HumphriesandStanton1992;BensonandHager1993;GentleandDuggin1998;DugginandGentle1998).Forexample,Fenshametal.(1994)correlatedL.camarainvasionwithsoildisturbancecausedbyferalpigs.Thisdisturbancekilledtrees,openingtheoverstoreycanopywithincreasedlightpenetrationoccurring.ThisincreasedlightlevelfavouredL.camaragrowthresultingintwooutcomes,thefirstthatpigsthenavoidedthesedenseinfestationscausingfurtherdisturbance,andtheseconditresultedinanincreaseinfireintensityduetoincreasedfuelloads.Thesemoreintensefiresthenkilltheremainingrainforestcanopy.StockandWild(2002)furtherpostulatedthatallstagesofthelifecycleofL.camaraincludinggermination,survivalandearlyseedlinggrowthwerestronglypositivelycorrelatedwiththeintensityofdisturbance,whichisinturnwaspositivelycorrelatedwithresourceavailability(DugginandGentle1998)andinparticulartolight.

TherehasbeensomedebateontheabilityofplantspeciestogerminateandgrowthroughL.camarainfestations(StockandWild2002),forexample,competitivespeciessuchasbroadleafprivet(Ligustrumlucidum)willgrowthroughinfestationsshadingthemout(Swarbricketal.1998). Studiesby

Stock(2004)showedthatwhilethegerminationofrainforestspeciesunderL.camaracanopieswassignificantlyreducedwhencomparedtogerminationunderrainforestcanopies,thesurvivalandgrowthofrainforestseedlingsunderL.camaracanopieswasnotsuppressed.ThisappearstobebroadlyconsistentwiththeobservationsofHumphriesandStanton(1992)thatrainforestspecieswilleventuallyestablishthroughL.camarainfestationsbutthattherateofregenerationislikelytobeafunctionofsoil,rainfallandrepeateddisturbancewithregenerationfavouredinareasofhigherrainfallanddeepersoils.Overall,L.camaraappearstohavethepotentialtoblocksuccession,displacenativespeciesandreducebiodiversity(Lamb1991;LoynandFrench1991;BensonandHager1993;Fenshametal.1994;Dayetal.2003;Stock2004;Vidler2004;CouttsSmithandDowney2006).

StockerandMott(1981)showedthatL.camaracanslowdownorblockgrassinvasionofdisturbedrainforest.GentleandDuggin(1998)indicatedthatL.camarawasaveryeffectivecompetitoragainstnativecolonisersunderhighlight,soilmoistureandsoilnutrientconditions.Lamb(1988)alsoshowedthatthecompetitivenatureofL.camarawillresultinanalterationtomanyoftheprocessesthatoccurnaturallyineucalyptwoodland,inparticularthatnativetreeslostvigourandthatnitrogencyclingwasalteredinfavourofL.camara. RegenerationofthesecommunitiesafterclearingL.camaramaybeslowbecausefewnativeplantpropagulesfromwhichregenerationcanoccurmaybeleft(Swarbricketal.1998).

ReductionsinbiodiversitywithL.camarainfestationsarecommon,particularlythatofthreatenedbiodiversity.Intheircomprehensivestudy,CouttsSmithandDowney(2006)foundthatL.camarawasathreat83threatenedplantspecies,twothreatenedanimalspecies(abutterflyandbird)and11threatenedecologicalcommunitiesinNSW,whereas15threatenedecologicalcommunitiesarelistedintheFinaldeterminationofL.camaraasaKeyThreateningProcess(DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation2006).Thethreatenedecologicalcommunitiesincluderainforest,Eucalyptusandfloodplainforestsandwoodlands,andBanksiascrub.

Anationalstudyontheimpactofthespeciesonbiodiversitywillundoubtedlyidentifyfurtherthreats(P.Turnerpers.comm.).Incontrast,earlierbiodiversitystudiesoutlined20endangeredorthreatenedfloraspecieswhichwerethreatenedbyL.camarainfestationsintheuppernorthcoastofNSW(vanOosterhout2004),while80speciesandcommunitieswereidentifiedasthreatenedintheNorthernRiversCatchmentManagementAuthoritywhichencompassedthisarea(CouttsSmithandDowney2006).SixtyplantandanimalspeciesofconservationsignificancewereestimatedasthreatenedinQld(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).

Althoughlesscommonlyrecorded,itisalsolikelythatL.camarainfestationsreducethenumbersofnonthreatenedfloraandfaunaininfestedareas.ForexampleCummings(2004)reportedthatseveralfunctionalgroupsofantswerereducedinLantanainfestedareaswhencomparedtonearbyrainforestandsclerophyllvegetation.Again,Fernandesetal.(2001)indicatedthatarbuscularmycorrhizafungiarereducedwhenrainforestecosystemsinMadagascarareclearedandreplacedbyintroducedweedssuchasL.camara.

ThereissomeevidencetosuggestthatL.camarainfestationsalterfireregimesinnaturalecosystems(HumphriesandStanton1992;Fenshametal.1994;Swarbricketal.1998). Inparticular,L.camaraincreasedthefuelloadsingrassywoodlandsandforestsonrainforestmarginsallowingintensefiretopenetrateintorainforests(HumphriesandStanton1992;Fenshametal.1994). Incontrast,HumphriesandStanton(1992)recordedevidencethatL.camaraactedasaprotectivebarriertomildfires.Asidefromthesituationsoutlinedabove,L.camaramayrestrictaccesstospecificareasincludingforestsandothernaturalecosystemstherebyrestrictingecotourismandrecreationactivities(Clarketal.2004).

Lantanamontevidensisisconsideredaweedofnaturalecosystems,andinparticularnationalparks,becauseitisanefficientpioneerspeciesthatdisplacesnativevegetation(Flannery1997,inO’Donnell2002;Bray2002;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).ItisacommonweedofopenwoodlandanddrysclerophyllforestinsoutheasternQldanddisturbedareasbehindmangroves(Munir1996;O’Donnell2002).Thereissomeevidence

tosuggestthatL.montevidensisreducedplantandanimalbiodiversityintheseandotherecosystemswhereitoccurred(Munir1996;O’Donnell2002;S.Csurhespers.comm.).

Forestry

Lantanacamaraisamajorweedoftimberplantationsincludinghooppine(Araucariacunninghamii)andmaybeproblematicintheearlyplantationstagesofexoticpinespecies(radiataandslashpine,PinusradiataandP.elliottiirespectively)inAustralia(Wells1984;Swarbricketal.1998;Hall2000;vanOosterhout2004).ThecostsofcontrollingL.camarainhooppineplantationsexceeded$200,000in1970(Waterhouse1970,inDayetal.2003)andarenowundoubtedlymuchhigher.Forexample,oneestimateplacedthesecostsinexcessof$500,000(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).InparticularL.camaravarietiesformimpenetrablethicketsundertheforestcanopy,competingstronglywithyoungtreesforlight,moistureandnutrients,decreasinggrowthrates,limitingaccesstothestandstherebyincreasingbothmanagementcostsandfirehazards(Swarbricketal.1998;Hall2000;Dayetal.2003).Incontrast,Swarbricketal.(1998)recordedthatL.camaraisrarelyaprobleminestablishedexoticpineplantationsbecauseitisshadedoutwhereaslightpenetrationismuchhigherinhooppineplantations(vanOosterhout2004).

vanOosterhout(2004)alsorecordedL.camaraasaseriousweedofhardwoodandcabinettimber(rainforestspecies)plantationswherethespeciesbecomesaprolificunderstoreymonocultureinhighlightsituations.

Plantationandothercrops

Lantanacamarahasbeenreportedasaweedofatleast14cropsthroughouttheworld(Holmetal.1977). Itisanimportantweedofbanana,coconut,coffee,copra,citrus,oilpalm,pineapple,rubberandteacropsparticularlyinsoutheastAsia,thePacificandAustralia,butalsoinothercountriessuchasIndia,NigeriaandTrinidad(Holmetal.1977;WaterhouseandNorris1987;SinghandAchhireddy1987;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004).vanOosterhout(2004)alsorecordedL.camaraasaweedofalmond,

avocado,grape,guava,kiwifruit,lychee,macadamia,mango,nut,olive,papaya,pecan,pistachios,pomefruit,stonefruitandwalnutcrops.Holmetal.(1977)andvanOosterhout(2004)notedthatL.camaraisaweedofcottoninTurkeyandNicaragua,riceinIndonesia,sugarcaneinAustralia,IndiaandSouthAfricaandpeanutandsoybeancrops.

Railwayandserviceproviders

Lantanacamaraisoneofthemosttroublesomeweedsthataffectrailwaysandrailwaycorridorsduetoitssize,andtherapidrateofspreadofthespecies(Mahoney1967;vanOosterhout2004).Theweedisalsoproblematicalongclearedeasementsforelectricitylines,androadways(Swarbricketal.1998;vanOosterhout2004).

Allelopathy

SeveralauthorshavesummarisedstudieswhichillustratetheabilityofL.camaratoproducechemicalsthatinhibitthegerminationandgrowthofcertaincropse.g.wheatandsoybeanandryegrassandannualweedsunderlaboratoryconditions(GentleandDuggin1997a;Swarbricketal.1998;Stock2004). Theseinteractionshavenotbeenexaminedfurtherbecausetheyareoflimitedimportancetothisdiscussion.

GentleandDuggin(1997a)foundevidencethatL.camara“iscapableofinterruptingregenerationprocessesbydecreasinggermination,reducingearlygrowthratesandincreasingmortality”ofnativeAustraliantreespeciesthattheweedcooccurswith.SinghandAchhireddy(1987)haveshowntheL.camaraisallelopathictocitrusinFlorida.Swarbricketal.(1998)outlinedfurtherunpublisheddatathatsuggestedthatL.camaraisallelopathictowardsmanyendemicAustralianplants.FurtherresearchisneededtobetterunderstandtheallelopathicinteractionsthatL.camarahaswithvariousnativeandcropplants.

Hostsforotherpests

LantanacamarathicketsproviderefugiaforpestanimalsandotherplantpathogensandpestsinAustraliaandaroundtheworld(Holmetal.1977;Swarbricketal.1998;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;Dayetal.2003;vanOosterhout2004).

Humaneffects

AsidefromthenuisanceaspectsofL.camararestrictingaccesstocertainareasandimpactingonotherhumanandfarmingactivities,thefruitofL.camaramayalsopoisonhumansifingested,occasionallyresultingindeath(Everist1981;Swarbricketal.1998). Shepherd(2004)alsoindicatedthattheleavesofL.camarawerepoisonous.InfestationsofL.camarareducetheoverallvisualamenityofvariousareas(Ensbey2003).

Beneficial

Ornamental

BothweedyandnonweedyvarietiesofL.camaraarewidelyplantedasornamentalplantsingardens,inparticularashedges(Swarbrick1986).Thenonpricklytriploidvarietiesthatproducelittleseedarebetterornamentalplantsthanthepricklyfruitingvarietiesbecauseoftheirshorter,denserplanthabitsandbecausetheflowerslastlongersincetheylargelyfailtofertilise(Swarbricketal.1998). BothLantanaspeciesarewidelyusedinlandscapedesign,publicandprivategardens,inparks,onroundabouts,inmedianstrips,inroadsidecuttingsandbesidefootpathsbecausetheyarecolourful,requirelittlemaintenanceandhavesomedroughttolerance(Neal1999;vanOosterhout2004).Everist(1981)andWebbetal.(1988)indicatedthatL.montevidensisiscommonlygrowninrockgardensandusedasagroundcoverplantonretainingwallsandbanksinNewZealand,andinotherpartsoftheworld.

Otherhumanuses

MuchofthefollowinginformationhasbeensummarisedfromMunir(1996)andDayetal.(2003),whicharethemselvesreviewsofawiderangeofinformation.ExtractsfromL.camaraareusedasherbalmedicines,especiallyinIndia,withextractsfromtheleavesshowingantimicrobial,fungicidal,insecticidalandnematicidalactivity,butnotantiviralactivity.Investigationsarecontinuingastowhetherextractsarealsousefulasherbicidesandnematicides.LantanamontevidensisisusedinherbalmedicineinSouthAmerica.

TheessentialoilspresentinL.camaraflowersandleavescanbeextractedforuseinperfumes.Productscontainingtheseessentialoilsareavailablefor

purchaseontheworldwideweb.ThetwigsandstemsofL.camaraarewidelyusedasfirewoodindevelopingcountries.

Alternativefoodandhabitatsourcesforwildlife

Swarbricketal.(1998)reviewedevidencethatL.camarawasbeneficialtowildlifeprovidingfeedingsitesforseed,leafandlitterfeedinginsectsandshelterforsmallbirdsandmammals.Theresultsofthatreviewwerenotconclusivehowever.BothLow(2001)andvanOosterhout(2004)contendedthatL.camarathicketsprovidedsuitablehabitatforbirdssuchasbrushturkeys,quail,whipbirdsandwrens,terrestrialanimalssuchasbandicootsandwallabies,frogsandreptilessuchassnakes,andinsectssuchasbirdwingbutterfliesandreedbeeswherethisweedhaddisplacednativevegetation.InmanyplacesL.camarainfestationsprovidedimportantreplacementhabitatwhennaturalhabitatwasnotavailable(Dayetal.2003). Clemson(1985)notedthatL.camarawasrarelyattractivetobeesbecausetheyobtainedverylittlenectarandpollenfromtheflowers.

Otherbenefits

Lantanacamaraisseenasusefulinpreventingsoilcompactionandsoilerosioninsteepriverinesituationsinsomeagriculturalsituations(Swarbrick1986;WaterhouseandNorris1987;vanOosterhout2004). InfestationsofL.camaramayalsobeavaluablesourceoforganicmaterforpastureimprovementandincreasenutrientmobilityineucalyptforestsandothersituations(Munir1996;Dayetal.2003;vanOosterhout2004).vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthatL.camaracanalsobeusedtoprovidebarriersorbuffersagainstfurtherdisturbanceofvariousareasbyhumans,livestockandotherweeds,toprovideinterimbuffersonrainforestedgeswhileinfestationsinsidearemanaged,andtorestrictaccesstoecologicallysensitivearease.g.caveswherebatsbreed.Theseinfestationsneedtobemanagedtopreventfurtherspreadhowever.TheuseofL.camarafruitasastockfeedhasbeeninvestigatedinIndia(Lalletal.1983a,b). Lantanamontevidensismayalsopreventerosionofsteepslopes,althoughthisisonlybecauseithasreplacedmoredesirablespeciesthatformerlyprovidedsoilcoverage(O’Donnell2002).

ThesaleofornamentalLantanaspecies

ThepotentialsaleofthelargelysteriletriploidvarietiesofL.camarainSouthAfricahasbeencriticisedbySpiesandduPlessis(1987).Thoseauthorsshowedthatthetriploidvarietieswerecapableofproducingfertilepollen(27.344.4%)andviableseedsthushybridisingwithdiploidvarietiesoftheplant.Neal(1999)indicatedthatbetween2and16%ofpollenfromornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensisandaL.camaraxL.depressahybrid,allsupposedlysterile,wasinfactviable.Furthermore20%ofBrisbanegardenssitessurveyedthatcontainedtheornamentalL.camaraxL.depressahybridandthepurpleornamentalvarietyofL.montevidensishad0.162%seedproduction/floret.PollinationstudiesbyNeal(1999)indicatedpollenfromweedyvarietiesofL.camaraandL.montevidensisresultedin26%and6%offloretsrespectivelyproducingseedinsupposedlysterileL.camaraxL.depressaplants.ThoseresultssuggestedthatwhenanornamentalvarietyofLantanaoccursinisolation,verylittleseedproductionoccurred.SeedproductiondoesoccurwhenornamentalvarietiesarefoundadjacenttoweedyL.camaraand/orL.montevidensisplants.

InadditionNeal(1999)demonstratedconsiderablepotentialforvegetativereproductionfromvariousLantanaspeciesandvarieties.Forexample,24%oftransplantedleavesfromtheornamentalL.camaraxL.depressahybridproducedrootmaterialafterfiveweekswhile4%alsoproducedshoots.Oneplantevenproducedflowersandseedaftertenweeks.Atotalof42%and34%ofornamentalwhiteandpurpleL.montevidensisvarietiesrespectivelyproducedrootmaterialafterfiveweeks,with2%and4%alsoproducingshoots.Incontrast,theweedyvarietiesofL.camaraandL.montevidensishad8%and12%rootproductionfromleavesafterfiveweeks.Thoseresultsindicatedthatthereisconsiderablepotentialforvegetativeproduction,indicatingthatthesevarietieshaveconsiderableweedypotentialquiteapartfromanythatoccursfromsexualreproductionanddispersal.

OneofthekeyaimsoftheWeedofNationalSignificancenationalstrategyforL.camaraisthephaseoutofsaleanddistributionofallnonsterilevarietiesofthespecies(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).ThetradeanddistributionofL.camaraisbannedinallstatesandterritoriesinAustralia(vanOosterhout2004;Appendix1). Despitethis,vanOosterhout(2004)

indicatedthatornamentalL.camaravarietieswerestillbeingplantedingardensandlandscapinginstatesandterritoriesofAustralia,particularlyinWA(D.Collopypers.comm.).Thetradeandplantingofthesevarietiesisgraduallydecreasinghowever.

vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthatanumberofornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensiswereavailableforsaleinAustralia.Inothercases,theweedypurplefloweredvarietywasgrowningardensasanornamental.Whiletheweedyvarietyproducesfertilepollenandseed,theornamentalvarietiesarelargelysterile,floweringprofuselyandrarelyproducingseed(Henderson1969;Everist1981).Unfortunatelypollenfromweedyvarietiescanpollinateornamentalvarietiesresultinginviableseedset.ThisaddstothegeneticdiversityofL.montevidensis. Inaddition,Hammer(2004)indicatedthatL.montevidensisisabletocrosswithL.camara.

AnysaleofornamentalvarietiesofL.camaraandL.montevidensishasthepotentialtoaddgeneticdiversitytotheweedyvarietiesalreadypresentinAustralia.Itislikelythatfurthergeneticdiversitywillhelpbothspeciestoexpandtheirdistributionintonewenvironmentsandtomakecontrolusingherbicidesandbiologicalagentsfarmoredifficult(vanOosterhout2004). BecauseofthediversegeneticbackgroundofL.camara(e.g.Dayetal.2003),thisdocumentrecommendstheremovalofallLantanaspeciesfromsaleinNSW.Inaddition,allplantsandseedssuppliedbynurseries,wholesalers,otherplantmarketerse.g.largesupermarketchainsandfromgardenclubexchangesshouldbebannedfromentryintothestateandaninformationprogramconductedtoalertandinformtheseplanttradeindustries/bodiesandthegeneralpublicofthesereasons.

vanOosterhout(2004)recommendedtheremovalofallplantingsofL.camaraandL.montevidensisfromprivateandpublicgardensandamenityareassothatgeneticmaterialdidnotmovefurtherintotheenvironment.WhilethisrecommendationissounditisprobablynotpracticalundercurrentNSWlegislation.Insteadtheinformationcampaignshouldencourageallgovernmentandprivatelandmanagerstoremoveallornamentalplantingsofbothspecies,toensuretheyareproperlykilled(solarisationunderorinplastichasbeensuggested),toreplanttheareaswithnativespecies(orlesspreferablynoninvasive

exoticspecies)thatarelowmaintenanceandthatdonothavethepotentialtobecomeweedyintheareafollowedbymonitoringofanyseedlingsorregrowth(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001;vanOosterhout2004).

NegativeimpactsoftheremovalfromsaleofLantanaspecies

TherearelikelytobeanumberofminornegativeimpactsassociatedwiththeremovalofsaleofLantanaspecies.Thefirstisthecommercialimpactsthatsuchabanwillhaveonthenurseryindustryandotherplantsuppliers.Ensbey(2005)indicatedthatLantanaspeciesonlyfillasmallmarketnicheandthatthisnichecouldbereplacedbynativeornonweedyexoticspeciesthatfulfilledasimilarfunctione.g.speciesthatwerehardy,lowgrowing,requiredlowmaintenancelevels,weredroughttolerantandweresimilarlycolourful.AregulatoryimpactstatementassociatedwiththedeclarationandprohibitionfromsaleofLantanaspeciesinQldin2003indicatedthatthemarketforthespecieswasvaluedat$75,000/annum(Ensbey2005). ThecostsofcontrollingLantanaspeciesandassociatedimpactsfromtheweedsfaroutweighedtheminorpotentiallossestothenurseryindustry.TherehasonlybeenoneissuethathasariseninQldafterthesixmonthmoratoriumusedtoremovestocksofLantanaspeciesended,thisbeingwherealargeretailchainstoreofferedplantsforsalewhichweresourcedfromoutsideQld(A.Clarkpers.comm.).

LEGISLATIONState declaration PriortoMarch2006,L.camarawasdeclaredasanoxiousweedthroughthenorth,midnorthandsouthcoastareasofNSWandintheSydneyarea(Appendix1;NewSouthWalesDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries2005).Dependingonthelocalgovernmentareaandthevarietyoftheplant(pinkorredflowered),L.camarawasdeclaredasaW2weedinmostcasesmeaningthatitwastobefullyandcontinuouslysuppressedanddestroyed.LesscommonlyL.camarawasdeclaredasaW3plantwhichmeantthatitneededtobepreventedfromspreadinganditsnumbersanddistributionreduced.The

recommendationsfordeclarationofLantanaspeciesthatarisefromthisreviewareoutlinedinAppendix2.

InsummarisingtheinformationcontainedinAppendix1,Ensbey(2005)notedthatonlytheredfloweredvarietyofL.camarawasdeclaredasaW2orW3weedonthenorthandmidnorthcoastsofNSW,mainlyduetoitstoxicitytolivestock.Thepinkfloweredvariety,althoughwidespreadwasnotdeclaredintheseareaseventhoughitwascontrolledbylandholdersandmanagersasresourcesallowed.Movingfurthersouth,withtheexceptionoftheCessnockcouncil,L.camarawasnotdeclaredintheHunterandcentralcoastareaswhereasbothredandpinkfloweringvarietiesweredeclaredasW2weedsthroughoutSydney.Again,L.camarawasnotdeclaredsouthofSydneywiththeexceptionofthepinkfloweringvarietyinEurobodalla.Begavalleyhadanactivemonitoringanderadicationprogramforthespecieseventhoughitwasnotdeclared.

Ensbey(2005)recordedthatthenorth,midnorthandsouthcoast,aswellastheTablelandsRegionalWeedAdvisoryCommitteeshavedevelopedandareimplementingregionalcontrolprogramsforL.camara. Thesouthcoastplanincludedpriorityareaswithcontainmentzonesandbufferareastopreventthespreadofthespeciesfurthersouth.

AllLantanaspeciesincludingL.camaraandL.montevidensisaredeclaredasClass3pestplantsacrossQld(QNRW2007).AClass3pestplantisonethatiscommonthroughoutQldbutthatmayposeanenvironmental,socialoreconomicthreatin,oradjacenttoanenvironmentallysignificantarea.Thisclassificationmeansthatlandholdersneededtocontrolthisplantiftheylivednextto‘environmentallysignificantareas’suchasnationalparksandreserves,butonlyifthesewerefreefromtheweed.CertainlocalgovernmentareasinQldhavealsodeclaredbothweedsrequiringcontrolinareasthatarenotinoradjacenttoenvironmentallysignificantareas(Appendix1).Plantsofbothspeciescouldnotbesold.LandholderswerealsorequiredbylawtoreduceinfestationsofbothspeciesinsomeareasoftheNT(vanOosterhout2004).

ThetradeanddistributionofbothL.camaraandL.montevidensisisrestrictedinmanystates.

A Weed of National Significance (WoNS)

CONTROLLantanacamarahasbeendeclaredaWeedofNationalSignificance(WoNS)becauseofitswidespreaddistributionandimpactonprimaryindustries,conservationandbiodiversityareas(vanOosterhout2004).Amajornationalcontrolprogramhasbeenlaunchedfocussingonpreventingitsintroductionandspread(Ensbey2003).ContinuingdeclarationofthisweedwithinNSWwillgivevaluablesupporttotheseefforts.

Benefits that may accrue from continued legislative control ThereareanumberofotherbenefitsthatwillaccruefromongoinglegislativecontrolofL.camaraandtheimplementationoflegislationtocontrolallLantanaspecies.WhileEnsbey(2005)outlinedanumberofreasons,thesehavebeenexpandedwithinformationcontainedinthisdocumentasfollows:

n preventingthefurtherdistributionofL.camaraandL.montevidensis. ThereissomecontentionastowhetherL.camarahasspreadtoitsmaximumgeographicrangeornot.Onreviewingtheevidencethisdocumentoutlinesevidencethatfurtherspreadmayoccur,especiallyifnewgeneticmaterialmovesintotheexistingpopulation.Incontrast,itishighlyunlikelythatL.montevidensishasspreadtoitsmaximumgeographicrangeatthistime;

n preventingthefurtherspreadofL.camarawithincurrentdistributionareas.WhileL.camaraiswidelydistributedinNSW,thereareanumberofareaswithinthelimitsofitscurrentgeographicspreadthatarenotinfested.Continuedmanagementvialegislativecontrolmayhelptoreducetheinfillingofsuchareas;

n areductioninthenegativeimpactscausedbybothspeciesincludingpasture,forestry,cropandnaturalecosysteminvasionandareductioninlivestockandhumanpoisoning;and

n preventionoffurthergeneticmovementfromornamentalvarietiesintotheenvironment.Stabilisationofthegenomeofthisspeciesshouldaidinthefuturesuccessofbiologicalcontrolagents.

ThereareanumberofexcellentreviewsavailableexaminingthemanagementofL.camara,particularlyvanOosterhout(2004)andSwarbricketal.(1998).O’Donnell(2002)alsoproducedanexcellentreviewonthemanagementofL.montevidensis. ThepurposeofthissectionistohighlightthebasicprinciplesofmanagementofthesespeciesinAustraliaandinformationhasbeendrawnfromthesereferences.IngeneraltheprinciplesoutlinedforL.camarawillbeeffectiveforL.montevidensisunlessotherwisementioned.ItisimportanttonotethatthecontrolofL.montevidensisisoftenmoredifficultthanthatforL.camara(O’Donnell2002).Constantvigilanceisrequiredforthesuccessfulmanagementofbothspecies(Dayetal.2003).

ThereareanumberofreasonswhyinfestationsofL.camaraandL.montevidensiscanbedifficulttocontrolincludingthesizeofinfestations,pooraccesstoinvadedareas,thelowvaluesofinvadedlandandthecostoftheongoingcontrolthatisneeded(Dayetal.1999;Dayetal.2003;Ensbey2003). Anintegratedmanagementstrategyislikelytoprovidethemosteconomic,efficientandpracticalmeansofmanagingthisweed(Ensbey2003).Suchastrategywillincludebothphysicalandchemicalcontrol,followup,ongoingmonitoringandrevegetation(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;Clarketal.2004;vanOosterhout2004)andneedstobetailoredtoeachsituation.Asummaryreviewofintegratedweedmanagementstrategieswillfollowtheinitialdiscussionofvarioustoolsthatmayformthesestrategies.

Itisalwayseasiesttoworkfromareaswherelightinfestationsoccurtowardsthosewithheavierinfestationsifpossible(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Incaseswhereextensiveanddenseinfestationsexist,initialcontrolmeasuresareusedtoeitherpromoteaccesstothesiteortoencourageregrowthsothatfuturecontroliseasier(vanOosterhout2004).Beforethisthough,itisalwayseasiesttopreventaweedfromenteringanarea.

Prevention PreventionofthespreadofL.camaraandL.

tebuthiuronandtriclopyr,andmixturesoffluroxypyrandaminopyralid,glyphosateandmetsulfuron

montevidensisintouninfestedareasisprobablythebestmeansofcontrol(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Therearethreemainmeansbywhichthiscanoccur:

n strategiccontrolofexistinginfestationssothattheydonotspreadfurther(toenablethisseethediscussionbelow);

n restrictingthesaleanduseofbothLantanaspeciesasgardenplantsbecausetheseplantscanactassourcesofnewinfestationsandintroducenewgeneticmaterialintoareaswhereexistinginfestationsoccurmakingcontrolmoredifficult(Randall2001;vanOosterhout2004).Noninvasivenativeorexoticspeciescouldberecommendedinplaceofthesespecies;and

n restrictingthefurtherimportationofanyLantanaspeciesintoNSW,notonlyL.camaraandL.montevidensis. Thiswilleventuallyresultinthepreventionofanynewvarietiesorspeciesescapingfromcultivation,naturalisingandhybridisingwiththeexistingLantanaspecies.

WhileL.camaraisrelativelywidespread,effortstopreventitspreadingtocurrentlyuninfestedareasarestilluseful.Incontrast,L.montevidensisisnotwidespreadinNSWandsomeareasofQldandvarioushygienemeasuresshouldbeobserved(O’Donnell2002). Theseincludefodderinspectionandrefusalofsuspectfodder,includingtheinspectionoffeedingsitesafterperiodsofdroughttoensurethespecieshasnotbeenspread.Quarantiningcattlethathavebeengrazingonplantsthathaveripefruitbeforemovingthemfrominfestedtocleanpasturesforfivetosixdaysmaybeaneffectivewayofreducingthespreadofviableseedsthroughthedigestivetractsofcattle.Vehiclehygienetopreventthemovementofseedsinmudorvegetativefragmentswillalsohelppreventspreadofthisspecies.TheuseofbufferstripsbetweeninfestedanduninfestedareaswillalsohelppreventthevegetativespreadoftheL.montevidensis.

Herbicides ThecurrentherbiciderecommendationsforL.camaracontrolinNSWinclude2,4Damine,dichlorprop,fluroxypyr,glyphosate,metsulfuronmethyl,

methyl,picloramand2,4Damineandtriclopyrandpicloram(AustralianPesticidesandVeterinaryMedicinesAuthority2007).Asidefromtriclopyrandtriclopyr/piclorammixtures,theseherbicidesworkbestbythoroughlywettingactivelygrowingfoliage(Ensbey2004;QNRM2004). Productscontainingtriclopyrareusefulforcutstumporbasalapplicationsandneedtobeappliedtoeachstemtoachieveeffectivecontrol.Thebestresultsfromcutstumpapplicationsoccurwhenthestumpiscutnohigherthan15cmfromthegroundandtheherbicideisappliedtothestumpwithin15seconds(vanOosterhout2004).Thefollowingdiscussionfocusesonfoliarherbicidesunlessotherwisenoted.

Thereareanumberoffactorsaffectingtheefficacyofthefoliarherbicidesoutlinedabove.Swarbricketal.(1998)summarisedarangeofAustralianandinternationalherbicidetrialsonL.camara. Thefollowinglistofregisteredherbicideswasderivedandarelistedinorderofdecreasingeffectiveness:fluroxypyr;glyphosate;piclorammixtures;dichlorprop;metsulfuronmethyl;and2,4Damine.Theseherbicideswereeffectiveagainstthecommonpinkandlesscommonredfloweringvarietyaswellasthe‘HelidonWhite’varietythatcommonlyoccursinsoutheastQueensland.Herbicidescontainingdicamba(notregistered)andfosamine(nowwithdrawnfromsale)weremoderatelyeffective.

Highvolumefoliarapplicationsoffluroxypyrweremoreeffectivethanlowvolumeapplications,especiallywhensurfactantsareadded(Love1989).Groundapplicationsof2,4Damine,glyphosate,dichlorpropandpicloramweremoreeffectivethanaerialapplications(Armstrongetal.1987).

Therewasamarkedseasonalityintheeffectivenessofherbicidecontrol.Inparticular,fluroxypyr,glyphosate,picloram,dichlorprop,metsulfuronmethyland2,4DamineweremoreeffectivewhenappliedbetweenDecemberandApril(HannanJones1998;Swarbricketal.1998). Ofthese,theactionofthegrowthregulatinghormonalherbicides(allherbicidesexceptglyphosateandmetsulfuronmethyl)waslinkedtothegrowthactivityoftheplantandmaypossiblybelinkedtoincreasedtranslocationoftheherbicide.Insummarisingothersresearch,Swarbricketal.(1998)

indicatedthatwaterstressandreducedfoliagecoverresultedinreducedcontrolduringautumn,althoughcoldweathermayalsobelinkedtothisreduction.Thebestresultsfromherbicideapplicationsweregenerallyachievedsixweeksaftergoodrains(rainfallexceeding35mm)andwhentemperaturesexceeded15oC(HannanJones1998).Theresultinggrowthflushresultedinagreateramountofherbicidebeingdepositedonyoungerleaftissue.

Graaff(1986)andHannanJones(1998)bothpostulatedthatthevariableresponseofL.camaratosimilarherbicidetreatmentsmaybeduetothelargevariabilitywithinthespecies.Forexample,therewasavariableresponseofthreedifferentvarietiesto2,4DamineinsoutheastQldinthatpinkandwhitefloweredvarietiesdiedwithinfourmonthsbutthatredfloweredvarietiesrecoveredwithinsixweeksandkeptgrowingdespitethefactthattherewerenodifferencesinleafwetabilityandsprayretention(DiatloffandHaseler1965). Variableherbicideresponsesto2,4DamineandfluroxypyrwerealsoobservedindifferentvarietiesfoundinnorthQld(VitelliandDorney1991).

Glyphosateappearedtogivedecreasingcontrolasplantsizeincreased(Wells1984).McMillan(1991)showedthatthevolumeofherbicideappliedneededtobeproportionaltothevolumeoftheplantratherthantheleafarea.vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthatL.camararegrowthfrom30to100cmhighafterdroughtorfrostevents(orevenafterburning,cutting,slashingordozing)wasideallytreatedwithfoliarherbicidesbecauseitwasactivelygrowing,accesswasofteneasierandthereducedsurfaceareaoftheplantrequiredlessherbicide.

ThereareanumberofotherimportantconsiderationswhenapplyingherbicidestoL.camara(Ensbey2003).Inparticularthecostoftheinitialtreatmentsandfollowupherbicideapplications(orcostofothertreatments)onregrowthandonnewseedlingsthathaveemergedneedstobefactoredinasacostofanongoingcontrolprogram.Herbicidesarelikelytobeanexpensiveoptiontotreatlarge,denseinfestations(vanOosterhout2004)andwhileaerialapplicationsbyhelicoptermaybefeasibleforlargeinfestationsthatareinaccessibletoothermachineryorcannotbeburnt,thesearestillnotcosteffective.Herbicidechoicealsoneedstominimisepotentialofftargetimpactsondesirablenativeandpasturespecies,andwaterways

whererelevant(Dayetal.2003;vanOosterhout2004). Itisalwaysimportanttoreadandfollowlabelinstructionswiththeuseofanyherbicides.

O’Donnell(2002)recordedthatfluroxypyrgavethebestoverallcontrolofL.montevidensisandthatwhileglyphosatealsogavegoodresultsinautumnitdidnotachievegoodresultsinspring.Wettingagentsdidnotimprovetheefficacyoffluroxypyrorglyphosatetreatments.Inaddition,theuseoffluroxypyrallowedgrassproductionwithinthreemonthsoftreatment(O’Donnell2002).

KleinschmidtandJohnson(1977)recommendedtheuseofdichlorpropforthecontrolofL.montevidensisindicatingthatthoroughcoveragewasneededforactivelygrowingplants.O’Donnell(2002)recordedthatwhilethischemicalachievedcontrolofplantsfortwoyears,significantregrowthoccurredafterthistime.Herbicidescontaining2,4Daminesaltsandpicloram/2,4DmixtureswerelesseffectiveonL.montevidensisthanthosealreadymentioned.

O’Donnell(2002)recordedthatregrowthoccurredfromplantsthathadbeenapparentlydeadforperiodsofovertwoyearswithallherbicidetreatmentsusedandthatnoherbicideachieved100%control.RegrowthstimulatedfromaburningeventdidnotimprovetheperformanceofL.montevidensiscontroloverunburntareas(O’Donnell2002).

Inadditiontothoseherbicidesoutlinedabove,herbicidescontainingmetsulfuronmethyl,tebuthiuron,triclopyrandmixturesoffluroxypyrandaminopyralid,glyphosateandmetsulfuronmethyl,andtriclopyrandpicloramareallregisteredforthecontrolofL.montevidensis(AustralianPesticidesandVeterinaryMedicinesAuthority2007).HerbicidescontainingglufosinateandimazapyrhavebeenshowntobeeffectiveagainstL.montevidensisinresearchtrialsbutarenotregisteredagainstthisweed.

Other management

Althoughtheuseoffirehasbeenwidelyrecommendedinthepast(Goodchild1951;SaintSmith1964;BartholomewandArmstrong1978),Swarbricketal.(1998)commentedthatverylittleinformationwasavailableontheeffectsofseasonality,meteorologicalconditionsduringoraftertheburn,fuelloads,the

typeoffire(groundorcrownfire)andthetimingofthereintroductionoflivestockifapplicable.While

Mechanicalclearing

agreeingwiththesesentiments,vanOosterhout(2004)outlinedcertainconsiderationsthatarerequiredfortheuseoffiretohelpmanageL.camarainnaturalandpastureecosystems.

Thebestresultswithfireappearedtobeobtainedwhenthefireswerehotandtheweedwasactivelygrowing,inearlysummerinsoutheasternQldandinlatewinterandspringinNSW(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003). Exclusionofgrazinglivestockbeforeafirewasplannedhelpedbuildupfuelloads.BurningwasnotrecommendednearrainforestareasastheseecosystemsarehighlysensitivetofireandtheresultingburncouldprovidefurtheropportunitiesforL.camaratoinvadecanopygaps,ormaypromotetheregrowthofsclerophyllspeciesinsteadofmoredesirablerainforestspecies(Vranjicetal.2000;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Firemayalsodamageplantationtimberorothertreecropse.g.coconutsifused(Dayetal.2003).

FireisausefultoolinthemanagementofL.camaraclearingdensethicketsandreducingthenumberofplantswhencombinedinanintegratedmanagementprogram(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001),particularlypriorto,orasfollowuptotreatmentsformechanicalorchemicalcontrol(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Thedangersoffireescapinganddamagingpropertyandpeopleneedtobecarefullyassessedandfirepermitsmayneedtobeobtained(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003;vanOosterhout2004).

FirecanbeusefulintwowaysinmanagingL.montevidensisseedlings(O’Donnell2002).Burningtrialshaveindicatedthatsurfaceseediskilledbyhotpasturefiresbutthatburiedseed(especiallyinantnests)escapes.Anyseedthatescapesafirewasmorelikelytogerminateviasmokestimulusandtheseplantscouldbeeasilycontrolledbyherbicidesand/ortramplingasseedlings.Adultplantsarenotkilledbyfirebecauseregrowthoccurssoonafter,andwhileseedsetmaybedelayed,observationssuggestedthatflowerandseednumbersmaybehigheronpreviouslyburntplants.

AnumberofauthorshaverecommendedtheuseofmechanicalclearingtoremoveL.camarainpastures(Goodchild1951;SaintSmith1964;BartholomewandArmstrong1978).Thiscanbeeasilyperformedusingbulldozers,slashers,stickrakersorwithchainpullingwheretheterrainpermitsandwhereerosionriskswouldbeminimised(Ensbey2003;vanOosterhout2004). O’Donnell(2002)indicatedthatbulldozingtoadepthof15cmgavereasonablecontrolofL.montevidensis. Itwasimportanttofollowupanysuchclearingwithspotherbicideapplicationsorhandpullingofregrowthfromexistingplants,anynewseedlings,oranyotherweedsthatemergedduetosoildisturbance(O’Donnell2002;Ensbey2003;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003;vanOosterhout2004).Itwasalsoimportanttoconsiderthatreshootingfrombrokenstemsafterpushingorstickrakingwasalsolikelyandthatthisregrowthneededcontrol(vanOosterhout2004). Acombinedmulcher/harvesterhasbeenbuilttoclearwoodyweedsincludingL.camarawithinhooppineplantationsinQld(Swarbricketal.1998).

Cultivation

Whilecultivation,generallydiscploughing,givesveryeffectivecontrolofL.camara,itisimportanttoplantcompetitivepasturestopreventreestablishmentoftheweed(SaintSmith1964;Swarbricketal.1998;vanOosterhout2004).Variousfodderplantshavebeensuggestedincludingglycine(Neonotoniawightii),kikuyu(Pennisetumclandestinum),leucaena(Leucaenaleucocephala)andGuineaandRhodesgrass(PanicummaximumandChlorisgayanarespectively),(SaintSmith1964;Swarbricketal.1998;A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).Itisimportanttoaccountforthepotentialweedinessofanynewspeciesintroducedtoensurethattheintroducedspeciesdoesnotbecomeaweed(e.g.Randall2001;Walton2003).Itmaybenecessarytoobtainapermitifnativevegetationisalsoclearedbythesemanagementmethods.Mechanicalgrubbingofindividualplantsinscatteredinfestationsmayalsobeuseful,especiallyifrevegetationiscarriedoutimmediately(vanOosterhout2004).

O’Donnell(2002)recordedthatmoreeffectivecontrolofL.montevidensisoccurredwithoffsetdiscsratherthanchiselploughsbutnotedthatmultiple

passesmaybeneeded.ChiselploughingcausedfragmentationofL.montevidensismaterialwithan

Grazingmanagement

increaseinplantnumbersresulting.

Handremovalandflameweeding

Lantanacamaraiswidelyremovedbyhandgrubbinginareasidentifiedforregenerationafterwhichselectedtreespeciesmaybeplantedandtendeduntilacanopyhasformedthatshadesoutanyfurtherinvasionsoftheweed(Swarbricketal.1998).Handgrubbingcanoccurwithamattockorhoe,whilea‘lantanalever’isunderdevelopmentinQld(vanOosterhout2004).Handcuttingusingabrushcutter,brushhookormacheteispopular,asistheuseoflargesecateursandhedgingtools,andevenchainsaws.Handcuttingallowsaccesstotheplantbaseforgrubbingorforthecutstumptobepaintedwithherbicide(vanOosterhout2004).Handpullingofseedlingsorevenlargerplantsafterrainfallispopularinsmallerinfestations(SaintSmith1964).FlameweedingalsocontrolledsmallL.camaraseedlings.ItisimportanttominimisesoilanddesirablevegetationdisturbancewithsuchactivitiestoreducetheriskoffurtherL.camaraseedgerminating(vanOosterhout2004).

ThemanagementofverysmallareasofL.montevidensismaybeachievedviapruningtogroundlevelbecausewhileregrowthoccurredafterthefirsttwopruningevents,plantsdiedafterthethird(O’Donnell2002).Asimilareffectmaybeachievedbychipping,mowingorslashing.Mulchingwithhaytoadepthofatleast20cmmayalsokilladultplants(O’Donnell2002).

GrazingmanagementasameansofmanagingLantanaspecieshasoftenbeenoverlookedbyanumberofreviews.Ensbey(2003)notedthatpropergrazingmanagementisausefulpreventativemeansofmanagementformanypastureweeds,notonlyL.camara.Conversely,theremovalofexcessivepasturebiomassthroughoverstockingandgrazingwillleadtopasturedegradationandtheinvasionofweedslikeL.camara.Replantingofdesirablepasturespeciesmayhelpreverseanyoverstocking(asmentionedabove).AvigorouspastureswardasopposedtograsstussockswillhelppreventtheestablishmentandgrowthofseedlingsofL.montevidensis(O’Donnell2002).

Revegetation

ThereplantingofdesirablenativespeciesalongwithcontinualmaintenanceoftheseareasisasimilarmeansofpreventingtheregrowthofL.camarainenvironmentallysensitiveareas(SaintSmith1964;CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003;Ensbey2003).Revegetation,alongwithmonitoringandfollowupcontrolmeasures,willhelpensurethatsitesarekeptfreeofreinfestation(vanOosterhout2004).AfterstudyingtheresponseofL.camaratoshading,Stock(2004)recommendedthattreecanopydensitiesof75%preventedfurtherencroachmentbytheweed.Revegetationmayincluderesowingofpasturesaftermechanicaldisturbanceandeithertheactiveplantingoflocalnativeplantspecies,orallowingthesetoregeneratenaturally.Regenerationwillbemoresuccessfulifthenativevegetationisintactandifinfestationsbytheweedaremorerecent.Thisisbecausemanymorepropagulesofdesirablespeciesarelikelytoremain.Ifremnantvegetationispresent,regenerationcanbeencouragedbyremovingL.camaraontheinterfacesandthenextendingtheseinterfacesprogressivelyintotheinfestationsovertime(vanOosterhout2004)combinedwiththeplantingoffastgrowingtreespeciesifappropriate(Stock2004).

Biological control Therehasbeenwidespreadinterestandactivityin

aprogenitor(anoriginatoroftheselinesofdescent),incontrasttopopulationsfromtheSolomonIslands

thebiologicalcontrolofL.camaraforseveralreasonsincludingthecostoftreatinglargeinfestations,theinaccessibilityofdoingso,theneedforongoingtreatmentandthatinfestationsaregenerallyonlandofloweconomicvalue(Dayetal.2003).

ThefirstbiologicalcontrolagentswereintroducedintoQldin1914(Tyron1914)andanumberofotherinsectshavebeenintroducedsince.Although29insectspecieshavebeentrialledandreleasedforthecontrolofL.camarainAustralia,mostofthesebiologicalcontrolagentshaveprovided,atbest,onlyminororseasonalcontrol(TomleyandRiding2002;Dayetal.2003;Walton2004).Fourspecieshavemadethemostsignificantimpactofthosethathaveestablished,thesebeingasapsuckingbugTeleonemiascrupulosa,twoleafminingbeetlesUroplatagirardiandOctotomascabripennisandaseedfeedingflyO.lantanae(Dayetal.2003). FurtherinformationontherangeofbiologicalcontrolagentsreleasedinAustraliaandaroundtheworldforuseonL.camaraisavailableelsewhere(Dayetal.2003).

ItisimportanttorememberthatbiologicalcontrolisonlyonetoolthatmaybeusedaspartofanintegratedmanagementprogramagainstL.camara,andthatbiologicalcontrolagentsmayonlybeeffectiveatcertaintimesoftheyear(vanOosterhout2004). ThewidegeographicandclimaticrangeoverwhichL.camaraoccursinAustraliaalsomakestheestablishmentofpopulationsofbiologicalcontrolagentsthatareadaptedtothesevariableconditionsdifficult(Swarbricketal.1998;DayandHannanJones1999;Dayetal.2003). ThereisincreasingevidencethatinsectbiologicalcontrolagentsmayshowapreferenceforsomevarietiesofL.camaraoverothers(Harleyetal.1979;Cilliers1987;WaterhouseandNorris1987;Swarbricketal.1998;DayandHannanJones1999;Dayetal.2003). ThelargestproblemwiththedevelopmentandreleaseofnewornamentalvarietiesofL.camaraistheincreaseinthegeneticdiversitythatinevitablyresultsinweedyvarietiesmakingpotentialfuturebiologicalcontrolevenmoredifficult. Inothercases,planttaxonomymaybetheconfoundingissue.Forexample,thestrongaffinitybetweenpopulationsofthefiveweedyvarietiesofL.camarainAustralia(Table1),andinFijiandVanuatuindicatedthatthesepopulationsshareL.urticifoliaas

andMaui(Hawaii),(Scottetal.2002;Dayetal.2003).Thisknowledgehasnowbeenintegratedintothecontinuingsearchforeffectivebiologicalcontrolagents,particularlyagentsthathavesomespecificityforL.urticifolia(Dayetal.2003). Dayetal.(2003)suggestedfurtherresearchwasneededintotheclassificationandidentificationofweedyvarietiesofL.camarainAustraliaandaroundtheworldtosupporttheseefforts.Incontrast,therustProspodiumtuberculatumwhichwasreleasedin2001mayhavebetterefficacyagainstmanypinkfloweredvarietiesofthisweed(TomleyandRiding2002).

Careneedstobetakeninthereleaseofanybiologicalcontrolagentintotheenvironment,notonlytoensureitsefficacy,butalsotominimisenontargeteffects.NontargeteffectshavebeencausedbytheinsectAconophoracompressa(releasedagainstL.camarain1995)totheexoticornamentalVerbenaceaespeciesfiddlewood,(Citharexylumspinosum)andduranta(Durantaerecta),andanumberofothercommongardenspeciesincludingjacaranda(Jacarandamimosifolia)andyellowbells(Tecomastans)(Maheretal.2004;Palmeretal.2004,2005).

OnebiologicalcontrolagentforL.montevidensis,theleaffeedingbeetleCharidotispygmaeawasreleasedin1994(Dayetal.1999). PopulationsofthisagentarenotsustainedonL.camara. UnfortunatelythisbiologicalcontrolagenthashadnoimpactonL.montevidensis(Walton2004).Dayetal.(1999)notedthatthreeotheragentsreleasedforthecontrolofL.camaraalsoattackedL.montevidensis. TheseagentsarealeaffeedinginsectHypenalaceratalis,aleafblotchingflyCalycomyzalantanaeandaflowerfeedingmothLantanophagapusillidactylabutagain,theimpactoftheseagentsislimited.

Integrated management of L. camara AnintegratedmanagementprogramforL.camarawillrequirearangeofstrategiesincludingprevention,physicalandchemicalcontroltools,followup,monitoring,revegetationandperhapsbiologicalcontrolagentswherepresent(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004).Theuseofvarioustoolswilldependonalargenumberoffactors

includingthesizeandlocationofinfestations,andthetime,moneyandotherresourcesavailable.Anyintegratedmanagementstrategyneedstobespecifictothesituationencountered.

Pasturesituations

Physicalcontrolofsmallnumbersofplantsmayinvolvediggingplantsupbeforefloweringbyhand,handpullingseedlingsorclearingwithmachinery(oftenatractorandchain)andburning(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;vanOosterhout2004).Careisneededwiththisapproachtoensurethatasmuchlateralrootmaterialisremovedaspossibletopreventreshooting.Thespotsprayingofherbicidesisgenerallyeffectiveinsmallbutdenseinfestations(vanOosterhout2004)whilecutstumpandbasalbarksprayingareeffectiveonsmallscatteredinfestations.

Onalargerscale,excludinglivestockpriortoaburningevent,bulldozingorslashingandthenstickrakingweedymaterialtogethercanaddtofuelloads(CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement2003).Slashingcanbeusedreducetheheightanddensityofplantsandtocreateaccesssothattramplingbylivestockormachinerycanoccur,aswellasencouragingregrowth(vanOosterhout2004).Itisimportanttorememberthatregrowthfromlivestemscanoccurwhencontactismadewithmoistsoilevenifthesestemsarechoppedup,(vanOosterhout2004). BiologicalcontrolagentsmaybeusefulinsuppressingL.camaragrowthwhenpresentleadingtoimprovedaccessandmanagement(vanOosterhout2004).

Burningfollowedbydiscingonarableterrainandtheimmediateestablishmentofavigorousgrassandlegumepasturehasenabledsuitablecontrolinareassuitableforgrazing(Goodchild1951;SaintSmith1964;BartholomewandArmstrong1978;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Forexample,Goodchild(1951)andBartholomewandArmstrong(1978)recommendedtheuseofgreenpanic(P.maximumvar.trichoglume)orguineagrass(P.maximum)andsiratro(Macroptiliumatropurpureum)mixtures.Thismixtureensuresthatseasonroundgroundcoverageisachieved,siratroincreasessoilnitrogenfertility,whichisimportantforsubsequentgrassgrowth,andbothspeciesprovidedrymaterialforsubsequentburningifnecessary.BothBartholomewandArmstrong(1978)

andvanOosterhout(2004)notedthatpastureneededtoberesownatabovenormalratesbeforerainfalltoensuregoodestablishment.Theapplicationofsuperphosphatefertiliser,orotherfertilisersmaybenecessaryforseveralyearsalongwithlightgrazingmanagementwithinthefirst18monthstoallowgoodpastureestablishment(BartholomewandArmstrong1978).Ifburningiscontinuedthenitisimportanttoresowpasturesaftereachburnandthatlivestockareexcludeduntilthepastureisestablished(BartholomewandArmstrong1978).

Naturalecosystems

ManagementofL.camarainnaturalecosystemsandconservationareaswillrequireaslightlydifferentapproachtothestrategiesoutlinedforpasturesituationsabove.MuchofthefollowingdiscussionhasbeendrawnfromvanOosterhout(2004).Inmostcaseschemicalapplicationisnotappropriateandwhenusedcareisrequiredtoavoidofftargetimpacts.Cutstumpandlimitedfoliarsprayingmaybeuseful,asmayhandgrubbing.Slashingmayalsobeappropriatearoundforestedgeswhereasmechanicaldisturbanceisnotusefulinmostsituations.Forlargedenseinfestationsunderthecanopywhereaccessisrestricted,fireandbiologicalcontrolmaybetheonlypracticalmeansofmanagement.Lantanacamaracancreatehotterfireswhichmaythreatenrainforestvegetationandstructuremakingitaninappropriatetool.FireshouldnotbeusedtomanageL.camaraindryvinescrubvegetationwhichalsohasalimitedtolerancetofire.Eucalyptusforestsandwoodlandsaremoreadaptedtofireofvaryingintensityandfrequencysuchthatfiremaybeusedasatooltopromoteregrowthmanagement.Anymeansofmanagementneedstobefollowedbyrevegetation,eitherbynaturalmeansfromthegerminationofpropagulesinthesoilorbyactivereplantingafterL.camararemoval.Monitoringbirdroostingsitesshouldalsocontinueaccompaniedbythehandpullingofanyseedlings,whiledisturbanceshouldbeminimised.IfL.camaraisprovidingalternativehabitatorstabilisingsoilthensectionsratherthanentireareasneedtobeprogressivelycontrolledandrevegetated.

Controllingregrowth ControlofL.montevidensisisbestachievedbythephysicalremovalofadultplantsandtheuseof

Lantanacamararegrowthisbestspotsprayedinsummerandautumn,especiallyaftergoodrainfall.Thisisbestdonewhenitisvigorouslygrowingandbetween30and100cmtall(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001;QNRM2004;vanOosterhout2004).Variousherbicidesgiveeffectivecontrolincluding2,4Damine,2,4Damineandpiclorammixtures,dichlorprop,glyphosateandpicloram.Alternatively,2,4Damineortriclopyrappliedasabasalbarksprayorasadressingonacutstumpareeffective.Inaddition,fluroxypyrappliedtothefoliage(ParsonsandCuthbertson2001)andtebuthiuronappliedtothesoilatthebaseoftheplantarealsoeffective(GillettandWells1999;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).Whenspotsprayingiscombinedwithseveralyearsofannualburning,infestationscanbereducedtolevelswherehandremovalbecomeseconomicallyfeasible.FollowupmanagementcombinedwithaprogramofcontinualmonitoringneedstooccurnotonlyforL.camarabutalsoforotherweedsandmaybenecessaryforatleasttwoyears(vanOosterhout2004).

Identifyingthecausesofinfestation

Finally,itisimportanttotryandidentifythecauseoftheinfestationsofL.camara.Forexample,weedinfestationsareoftensymptomaticofotherproblemsincludingdisturbance,overgrazing,inappropriateburningandclearing(vanOosterhout2004).Reducingthecausesofinfestationswillhelpreducetheinfestationsthemselves.

Integrated management of L. montevidensis AlthoughadultplantsofL.montevidensisareveryresilienttofire,drought,mechanicaldisturbanceandsomeherbicides,anintegratedweedmanagementprogramforL.montevidensisinvolvingmanyofthesameprinciplesasoutlinedabovewillbesuccessful(O’Donnell2002).MuchofthefollowingdiscussionhasbeenextractedfromO’Donnelletal.(1999),O’DonnellandPanetta(2000),ParsonsandCuthbertson(2001)andO’Donnell(2002),unlessotherwisenoted.

herbicides.Smallinfestationsoftheweedcanberemovedbyphysicallydiggingthemuptoremovetheplantsandbycultivation.Subsequenttooffsetdiscing,plantingcompetitivepasturescomposedofgrassspeciessuchasIndianbluegrass(Bothriochloapertusa)andwoollyfingergrass(Digitariaeriantha)willprovidegoodgrassbiomassandsomesuppressionofL.montevidensis(O’Donnell2002).Otherspeciessuchascreepingbluegrass(Bothriochloainsculpta)providedgoodbiomassbutgavenosuppressionwhereasbuffelgrass(Cenchrusciliaris)competedeffectivelywiththeweed.FewerL.montevidensisplantseventuatedwhenpasturespeciesweresownincombinationwiththelegumewynncassia(Chamaecristarotundifolia),whichmaybearesultofthesprawlinghabitofthelegumecombinedwiththeextranitrogenreleasedencouraginggrassproduction.Sincelightappearedtoberequiredforgermination,seedburialviaploughingshouldalsoreduceseedlingemergence.Seedviabilityfallsbyupto70%inthefirstyearofburialand80%inthesecondyear.

Wherecultivationisnotpracticable,repeatedherbicideapplicationsonactivelygrowingplantsinlatesummerandautumnshouldbeusedwherenecessary.Registeredherbicidesforthecontrolofthisspecieshavebeenoutlinedabove.Alternativelythenativeblackspeargrass(Heteropogoncontortus)canbecomeestablishedininfestationsofL.montevidensiswithoutgroundpreparationmakingitusefulonsteepslopeswherecultivationisnotpossible.ConservativestockingratescombinedwithpasturespellingtoallowregenerationofdesirablegrassesandthestrategicuseoffireisaneffectivemeansofmaintainingthevigourandcompetitiveabilityofnativepastureswhilereducingthegrowthofL.montevidensis.

Dayetal.(1999)outlinedthatwhilerepeatedherbicideapplicationonL.montevidensisregrowthandtheplantingofperennialpasturespecieswasausefulmeansofcontrol,thecostperunitareaoftenmadethisanunfeasibleoption.Burningwasalsoineffectivebecausetherewasgenerallyinadequatefuelloadstomaintainahotenoughfiretokilltheroots(Dayetal.1999;ParsonsandCuthbertson2001).

SOCIALLIMITATIONS Firstly,itiswellknownthatthespeciesLantanacamaraiscomposedofanumberofgeneticallyvariable

TOCONTROLThe widespread acceptance of L. camara Inthepast,thecommunityhaswidelyacceptedL.camaraasbeing‘partofthelandscape’(Clarketal.2004;vanOosterhout2004).Ineffortstoincreasethemotivationformanagingthisweed,aswellasprovidinginformation,managementtoolsanddirectionstoassistwithmanagement,Clarketal.(2004)outlinedfourneedstoensurethatincreasedmanagementoccurs,thesebeing:

n “areevaluationofattitudestoLantanaspeciestoensurereneweddiligence;

n improvedawarenessandexchangeofinformation;

n integrationofcontrolmethodsandprioritisationofactionstoachievebettercontrolresults;and

n strategicallycoordinatedmanagementtosecureongroundresults.”

ThereareanumberoffactorsthathaveresultedinthewidespreadacceptanceofL.camarabythecommunity(Clarketal.2004). Theseincludethelargesizeofinfestationsconfrontinglandmanagers,theinaccessibilityofmanysuchinfestationstoconventionalmethodsofmanagement,theconfusionaboutthecontinuedsaleofornamentalvarietiesandthewidespreadplantingofthesevarietiesbygardeners,councilsandbusinesses.Thesizeandinaccessibilityofinfestationsgenerallyreducestheimpetusforlandmanagerstobothstartandcontinuemanagingsuchinfestationsonanongoingbasis.

Issues involved with the sale of Lantana species ThereareanumberofissuesthatarisefromthecontinuedsaleofLantanavarieties. IthasbeenarguedthatbecauseofthewidespreadnatureofLantanavarietiesineasternAustralia,thecontinuedsaleofthesevarietiesintheseareasislikelytohaveaminorimpactonthefurtherspreadofthespeciesoutsideofitscurrentrange.Thisargumentcannotbesustainedonanumberofgrounds.

varietiesandthatthesevarietieseasilyhybridisewithoneanother(Spies1984a,b;SpiesandduPlessis1987;Neal1999;Dayetal.2003). Anyfurtheradditionstothegeneticdiversityofthespeciesarelikelytoresultinmoredifficultmanagementinthelongterm,especiallyforpotentialbiologicalandchemicalcontrol(Ensbey2003;Clarketal.2004),butmayalsoincreasetheadaptabilityofnewhybridsofthespeciestonewenvironments(A&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM2001).Ensbey(2003)statedthisasareasonastowhyitwasnecessarytolimitnewintroductionsofL.camaratononinvasivevarieties.

Whiletheintroductionofnoninvasivevarieties,ifenacted,wouldbehelpful,itwouldnotentirelysolvetheproblem.Suchnoninvasivevarietiesarestilllikelytoproduceasmallproportionofviablepollenandseed,addingtothecurrentgenepoolintheenvironment(Neal1999;QNRM2004).Inaddition,thesevarietiesuponcrossingwithplantsintheexistinggenepoolwillresultinhybridsthatmayormaynotretainthenoninvasivecharacterofoneoftheirparents.Itismuchsaferinsteadtorecommendtheuseofalternativenativeplantsthatoffersimilargrowingandornamentalfeatures(Ensbey2003),butonlyifthenoninvasivenatureofthesenativespecieshasbeenwellestablished.ThisisimportantbecausethereareanumberofexamplesofnativeplantsfromoneareaofAustraliathatareinvasiveinanotherandthusconsideredasseriousenvironmentalweeds,forexampleCootamundrawattle(Acaciabaileyana)amongmanyotherAcaciaspecies,aswellassweetpittosporum(Pittosporumundulatum)(BennettandVirtue2004).

Secondly,thewidespreaddistributionofthisspeciesacrossanumberofclimatic,ecosystem,rainfall,topographic,elevationandrainfallzonesindicatesthatthisspeciesishighlyadaptivetoabroadrangeofclimaticconditions(Swarbricketal.1998;Dayetal.2003;vanOosterhout2004).Anumberofauthorspostulatethatthisspeciesmayspreadfurtheroutsideitscurrentrange,particularlyintothewarmertropicalnorthernAustraliancoastlineareasandperhapsintocoolersouthernNSWandViccoastalareas.Theintentionalsaleofthisspeciesintotheseareasislikelytoproducefurthergeneticmaterialfromwhichweedpopulationscanestablish.

Thethirdissuethatarisesisthatthesaleofthesevarietiesislikelytoprovideforcontinuedspreadofthespecies.EvenifL.camarahasreachedthelimitsofitspotentialrangeinNSW,continuedintroductionswillresultinthespeciesinvadingnewhabitatsandincreasingindensitywithinthisrange(Ensbey2003).Thiswillcontributetoincreasedmanagementneededforthecontrolofthespecies.

Thefourthissueisuniformityoflegislation.Forexample,ifLantanaspeciesarenotremovedfromsaleineverystatethentradeandmovementofthespeciesfromstatesthathavethespeciesforsalecanstilloccurintoareaswheretheyarerestrictedfromsale.Thiswillresultincontinuedspreadofthespecies.

Thefifthissueisoneofperception.Whilethevarietiessoldmaynotbe‘weedy’varietiesofL.camaraorL.montevidensis,landmanagersareunlikelytoeitherrecognisethisor,iftheydo,toplacethisknowledgeasidewhentheyconsidermanagementofinfestationsofL.camaraontheirland.Rather,landmanagerswillperceivethatthereislittlepointtomanagingLantana

Figure13.Purple flowering variety of the ornamental Lantana montevidensis planted in a median strip, Griffith (south western NSW, September 2005) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

speciesifgardeners,councilsandbusinesscanplantit,therebyspreadingplantstothelandmanagers’landswhenvariousanimalseatandspreadit.Again,thereisaperceivedconflictofinterestifcouncilscontinuetoplantLantanavarietiesandthenenforcethemanagementofweedyvarietiesonprivateorpubliclands.ThisconflictofinterestextendstocouncilspermittingthesaleofLantanavarietiestothewidercommunitywhileenforcingcontrolonotherpartsofthecommunity.

Eveniflandmanagersrecognisethattherearesomedifferencesbetweenthevarietiesforsale(despitethefactthatthesevarietieswillresultinsomespreadandgeneflow)andthosethatareweedy,theyarelikelytosetthisknowledgeaside.Thismaybebecausetheyarenotconvincedofthetruthsoftheseclaimsortheyconvenientlyignorethembecausetheydonotwishtospendthemoneytocontrolexistinginfestations.Theseactionsmayprovidesuitableexcusestolandholdersthatclaimapotentialconflictofinterestwithlocalgovernment(asoutlinedabove).

Constraints to managing L. camara Aftersurveying1021landholdersandmanagersin2003,vanOosterhout(2004)indicatedthattimeandcostwerethetwolargestfactorsconstrainingL.camaracontrol.ThesefactorswerefollowedbythedifficultyinaccessingL.camarainfestationsparticularlyduetotheterrain.Economiesofscalewereachievedonlargerpropertiessuchthattheaveragecostperhectareonpropertiessmallerthan100hawas$31.70,decreasingto$8.40/haforproperties5001000haand$0.86forpropertieslargerthan10,000ha.Itwasencouragingtonotethatknowledgeofpotentialmanagementoptionswasconsideredaveryminorfactorlimitingcontrolandthatthevastmajorityofrespondentshadongoingfollowupatintervals.Ingeneralhowever,landholdersandmanagersneededtotrialmoreintegratedmanagementstrategiesinsteadofrelyingonasinglecontrolmethodsuchasamanual,mechanicalorchemicalremoval.

Motivating land managers to undertake management

n Committedenvironmentalattitudeandpriority.ThemanagementofLantanaspeciesislikelytoarise

Inconsideringhowtomotivatealllandholderstoundertakemanagement,Clarketal.(2004)notedthattherewereanumberofpositiveandnegativefactorsinfluencingthemanagementofthisspeciesandsummarisedtheseundersixbroadcategories.

n Availableinformation.LandmanagersmaybemoremotivatedtomanageLantanaspecieswhentheyhavesoundinformationavailabletothem.Thisinformationwouldincludebestmanagementpracticeandanintegratedprogramofcontrolcombiningmanagementandmonitoring.Suchinformationshouldhelppreventsinglecontrolmethodsandadhocmanagementwhichareoftenineffective.

n Resourceavailability.Variousresourcesincludingtime,money,equipmentandpersonnelwereneededtomanagethisweed.Positivemotivationmayarisefromfavourablecost/benefitratiosingrazingsystems,incentivesfromlocalgovernmentforlandholderstoundertakecontrolandtheavailabilityofpublicfundingtopreserveimportantareas.Fewresourcesaredevotedtounusedandvacantlandcreatinglittleactivecontrolandalackofmotivationformanagement.

n Access.Managementiseasierinreadilyaccessibleareaswhereasitmaybehamperedinrelativelyinaccessibleareassuchassteephillsidesorotherdenseareas.

n Activelandmanagement.AgriculturallandandnaturalareasthatareactivelymanagedarelikelytobeactivelymanagedforLantanaspeciesbecauseremovalwillincreaseproductivity,conservationandbiodiversityvalues.Incontrast,neglectedareasarelikelytoattractlesserattention.

fromthosewhohaveanincreasedenvironmentalawareness,forexample,landmanagerswhowishtofarminasustainablewayandlandholdersandenvironmentalvolunteerswhoaretryingtorestoreblocksoflandtoamore‘natural’speciescomposition.Theprioritiesofthesepeoplewillresultinincreasedcontrolofenvironmentalweedsaddingtotheconservationvalueandcommunityperceptionoftheselands.

n Legislationandcompliance.Whilelegislationcanbeusedasapowerfultooltoencouragegoodstewardshipofland,itisimportanttoencouragelandmanagerstovoluntarilyabidebyregulations,andontheotherhandforgovernmentbodiestoenforcethelegislationwhereitisappropriate.Goodstewardshipofthelandmaynotbepracticedwithoutenforcedcompliance.

RECOMMENDATIONSRecommendationsfromthisdocumenthavebeenmadetotheNoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommittee.TheseareoutlinedinAppendix2.

FURTHERRESEARCH toparentalvarietiesviasomaticmutation.Suchchangeshaveimportantimplicationsinsuccessful

NEEDSThereareanumberoffurtherresearchneeds.Thesehavebeenbrieflymentionedbelow.

n AnaccurateassessmentofthenumberofvarietiesofL.camaraandL.montevidensisinAustralia,theiridentificationandpossibletoxicitiescombinedwithaccurateinformationonthebestmanagementofeachofthesevarieties.ThismaypartiallyinvolvefurtherDNAanalysisviaRAPDtechniques.

n TherateatwhichgeneticflowfromexistingornamentalvarietiesofLantanaspeciesoccursintonaturalisedpopulations.Thismayoccurviaspreadofpollen,seedorvegetativematerial.ThishasimportantimplicationsinthecontinuedmanagementofweedyvarietiesofbothL.camaraandL.montevidensis.

n FurtherquantificationofthefactorsresponsibleforL.camaraandL.montevidensisgermination,seedlingrecruitmentandmortality.Inparticular,nospecificstudieshavedeterminedtheinfluenceoffruitpulponthegerminationofL.camaraseedswhilefurtherstudiesontheseedbankdynamicsofthisspeciesareneeded.Thesestudiesareimportanttoaccuratelyplaceatimeframeonongoingmonitoringoncetheremovalofinfestationshasoccurred.

n FurtherstudiesintothebreedingsystemofLantanaspecies,inparticular,theabilityofL.camaratoselfpollinate.

n StudiesregardingtheroleofbirdsindispersingLantanaseedsareneeded,inparticularbehaviourandfeedingpreferencesandthedistancesdifferentbirdstravelaftereating.

n AnassessmentoftheabilityoflateralshootsofL.camaratoproducenewshootsoncebrokenordamagedinthesoil.Mechanicalorhandremovalproducesahighnumberofbrokenlateralrootsandsomeevidencesuggeststhattheserootsmaygiverisetonewplantsundersuitablegrowingconditions.

n AbetterunderstandingofthefactorsthatresultinoccasionalbranchesofL.camararevertingback

biologicalcontrolandtoxicitymanagement.

n InvestigationsintotheecologicallimitationsofbothLantanaspecies.Inparticular,studiesshouldinvestigatetheinfluenceoflowtemperatures/frostsandsoilmoistureasthereissomedisagreementabouttheimportanceofthesefactorsastheyrelatetothecurrentdistributionofbothspecies.

n QuantificationofthefactorsresponsiblefortheregenerationofrainforestandotherforestspeciesthroughLantanainfestations.Anunderstandingofthesefactorswillbeimportanttoensurerevegetationcanoccur.

n AccurateassessmentsontheimpactofLantanainfestationsonthreatenedplantandanimalspecies.ThepotentialofL.camaratoprovidealternativefoodandsheltertoinsectsandotheranimalsrequiresfurtherstudy.

nMoreaccurateassessmentoftheimpactofL.camaraonfireregimesinvariousnaturalecosystems.Giventhatfireisausefultoolinsomesituationsthisresearchneedstofocusontheeffectsseasonality,meteorologicalconditionsduringorrainfallaftertheburn,fuelloads,thetypeoffire(groundorcrownfire)andthetimingofthereintroductionoflivestockonthecontrolofbothspecies.

n ThecontinuedassessmentofpotentialbiologicalcontrolagentsagainstbothLantanaspecies.

n Furtherassessmentonthetoxicity,orotherwiseofL.montevidensis.

n FurtherproofofallelopathicaffectsofL.camaraonotherplantsunderfieldconditions.

n AmoreuptodateassessmentoftheeconomicimpactofbothL.camaraandL.montevidensisonprimaryproductionandtheenvironmentinAustralia.

n Collationofexistinginformationandresearchonalternativeornamentalspecies,growthhabitsandrequirementsincludinglikelysourcesofsuchplantingmaterial.

INFORMATION CONCLUSIONSREQUIREDFROMCONSULTATIONTheimpactsoftherecommendationsoutlinedinthisreportneedtobeevaluatedviaconsultationwithvariousstakeholders.Inparticularthisconsultationneedstoevaluatethefollowing:

n anaccurateassessmentoftheeconomicimpactontheremovalfromsaleofallLantanaspeciestothenurseryindustryandthecommunity;

n theaffectsofbothLantanaspeciesonpasturesandanimalproduction.Impactssuchasreductioninpasturebiomassandspeciesabundance,theimpactsofLantanatoxicityongrazinganimalsandtheimpedanceonlivestockandhusbandrymovementsneedtobeaccuratelyassessed;

n theaffectsofbothLantanaspeciesontheintegrityofnaturalecosystemswithparticularreferencetofloraandfaunabiodiversityandabundance,conservationandamenityvaluesandferalanimalcontrol;

n theimpactofL.camaraoncommercialforestryandotherplantationcropsincludingbanana,citrus,pineapple,andvariousfruitandnutcropsinAustralia;

n thecostsincurredbyLantanainvasionintorailway,electricityandroadcorridors;

n informationonthetoxicityorotherwisemedicinalvalueofLantanaspeciesonhumanbeings.TheextentthatL.camaraisusedasamedicinaloilsourceinAustraliaalsoneedstobeexplored.AbanonthesaleofLantanamaterialmayalsoresultinabanontheproductionprocessesandendproductsassociatedwithessentialoilsfromLantanaspeciesunlessanexemptionismadefortheseprocessesandproducts;and

n theintentoflocalgovernmenttocontinuetomanageL.camaraandundertakecontrolofL.montevidensis.

TherearetwonaturalisedspeciesofLantanainNSW,L.camara(lantana)andL.montevidensis(creepinglantana).Bothspecieshaveanumberofornamentalandweedyvarieties.

Lantanacamaraisamultibranched,perennialshrubthathastheabilitytoformdensethickets.Ifdamaged,shootsregrowvigorouslyfromtheplantcrownandfromdamagedstems.Thespeciesmayalsohavetheabilitytoreshootfrombrokenlateralroots.IncontrastL.montevidensisisacreepingperennialspeciesrootingatthestemnodesandproducinglowbutdensethickets.Thisspecieshasalargelignifiedtaprootthatallowstheplanttoresistshootdamage.Ornamentalvarietiesmayproducefewerfruitthanweedyvarieties.Thethicketformingnatureofthesespeciesmakesmanagementofinfestationsdifficult.Theapparentlowerfecundityofornamentalvarietiesmayreducetheirweedpotentialinsomesituations.

ThespeciesLantanacamaraisavariablepolyploidspeciesaggregatecomposedofatleast29differentvarietiesinAustralia.Existingvarietiesfreelyhybridiseresultingindifficultyincorrectlyascertainingtheiroriginandhencepotentialbiologicalcontrolagents.Althoughsomeornamentalvarietiesaresupposedlysterile,recentstudiesinSouthAfricaandAustraliaindicatethatthisisnotthecase.

Lantanacamaravarietiesvaryintermsoftheirploidylevels,plantmorphology,responsetoenvironmentalconditionsandnaturalenemies,chemicalcompositionandtoxicityandtheirresponsetoherbicides.ThelevelofdifferentiationinL.camaravarietiesalsomakesitdifficulttopromoteconsistentweedmanagementmessages.AlthoughitisunclearhowmanyvarietiesofL.montevidensisarepresentinAustralia,studiesindicatedifferencesexistinploidylevelsandplantmorphology.Thesedifferencesmayalsobeimportantinthemanagementofvarietiesofthisspecies.StudiesindicatethatdifferentLantanaspeciespreviouslyseparatedbygeographyhybridisefreelyandthatL.camaraxL.montevidensishybridsaregrownasgardenplants.

LantanacamarawasfirstintroducedintoAustraliain1841. ThespecieshasspreadextensivelythroughouttheeasterncoastalareasofNSWandQldintropical,

subtropicalandwarmtemperateareas.SmallerinfestationscanbefoundintheNT,WA,SAandVic.ThisindicatesthatL.camarahasawideclimaticrangeinAustralia,althoughspreadofthisspeciesinareasreceivinglessthan650mmofmeanannualrainfallhasnotyetoccurred.TheecologicallimitationsresponsibleforthedistributionofthisspeciesinAustraliaare,asyet,poorlyunderstood.ThereissomedisagreementastowhetherL.camarahasreachedthelimitofitsgeographicspreadinAustralia.Furtherinvasionofcurrentlyuninfestedareasisalsostilloccurring.AlthoughL.camaraisweedyinover60countries,ornamentalvarietiescanbefoundthroughouttheworld.

LantanamontevidensisappearstohavebeenintroducedintoAustraliain1851,wasrecordedasweedyinsoutheasternQldfromthe1880’sandhassincebecomeasignificantprobleminsubcoastalandcoastalareasofQld.ThespecieswasfirstrecordedasaweedinNSWinthe1950’sbuthasnotspreadsignificantlyinNSWasyet,despitetheclimaticsimilaritiesofNSWwithQld.SmallinfestationscanbefoundintheNT,VicandWA.ItislikelythatL.montevidensiswillspreadbeyonditspresentrangeinAustralia,particularlyincoastalandwesternareasofNSWandQld,andperhapsintocoolerareasinsouthernNSWandVic.WhileL.montevidensisiswidelyplantedasanornamentalaroundtheworld,ithasonlybeenrecordedasaweedinAustralia,andperhapsFlorida.BothnurserystockandseedsofLantanaspecieswerepermittedimportintoAustraliauntillate2006potentiallyincreasingthegeneticdiversityofbothspecies.

AlthoughgerminationofbothLantanaspeciesoccursthroughouttheyear,seedlingsaremorelikelytoestablishunderhighsoilmoisture,temperatureandlightconditions,particularlyafterdisturbance.Seedlinggrowthratesareslowandplantsgenerallydonotflowerintheirfirstyearofgrowthwithgrowthslowedorstoppedduringwinter.TheseedlingmortalityofL.montevidensismaybehighduringthisperiod.Thelongjuvenileperiodofbothspeciesallowsforconsiderablemanagementopportunities.

Afterspringregrowth,L.camaraplantsflowerandsetfruitallyearroundintropicalandsubtropicalareas,andthroughoutspring,summerandautumninmoretemperateareas,particularlyinresponseto

rainfall.FloweringandfruitsetinL.montevidensisalsotendstooccuryearround.Inexcessof12,000fruitmaybeproducedonlargeL.camaraplantswhileover2,500fruit/m2areproducedonL.montevidensisplants.Reductionsinseedviabilityofupto50%inL.camaraand80%inL.montevidensismayoccurwithintwoyearsofseedburial.Plantsofbothspeciesareperennialwithrapidshootgrowthoccurringaftertheremovalofshootsbyfire,herbicide,physicalremoval,droughtorfrost.Newplantsorcanesappeartobeproducedfromplantcrowns,fromintactordamagedlateralroots,andfromintactandcutstemmaterial.

Dispersalofbothspeciesoccursviaanumberofmeans.Alargenumberofnativeandexoticbirdspeciesspreadseed,aswellasawiderangeofferalanimalsandlivestock.Asidefromdeliberatespreadviathetradeofornamentalvarieties,spreadmayalsooccurinwater,insoil,onmachinery,onpeopleandvegetativelyondiscardedgardenwaste.Thewidevarietyofdispersalmechanismsindicatesthatspreadofthesespeciesisdifficulttocontain.

TwentyyearoldestimatesindicatethatinfestationsofL.camaracoveredinexcessof4millionhectaresandcostprimaryproductioninexcessof$10million/annum(amorerecentestimate).ThecostofL.montevidensisinfestationshasnotbeenestimatedbuthundredsofthousandsofhectaresareaffectedinQld.

BothLantanaspeciesoverrunpastureecosystems,shadingoutmoredesirablespeciesandreducepastureproductionwithinfestationsreducingaccessforpeopleandlivestock.AllbutthreevarietiesofL.camaraarepoisonoustograzinglivestockandotheranimals,producingarangeofsymptomsandoftendeath,forexampleinupto1500cattleperannuminQld.ThereissomedisagreementastowhetherL.montevidensisistoxictolivestock.Theconsiderablelossescausedtopasturebasedprimaryproductionindicatethereisconsiderableneedtocontinuetomanagethesespecies.

Lantanacamarathreatensalargenumberofecosystemsincludingfrontalduneandnearbycommunitytypessuchasmangroves,sedgeandheathlands,woodlandsassociatedwithmelaleucas,banksiasandcasuarinas,aswellopenwoodlands,tropical,subtropical,warmtemperateanddryrainforestsandwetanddrysclerophyllforestcommunities.ThereislittleevidencetosuggestthatL.camarainvadesforest

ecosystemsintheabsenceofdisturbanceeventssuchasofthesoil,increasedlightandfireintensitylevels.Infestationshavethepotentialtoblockorslowforestsuccession,displacenativespeciesandreducebiodiversity.ThereisincreasingevidencethatL.camarahasanegativeimpactonthreatenedanimalandplantspecies.Lantanacamaraalsoaltersfireregimes,commonlyallowingmoreintensefirestopenetrateintorainforestscausingextensiveandperhapsirreversibledamage.Ecotourism,recreationalandaestheticvaluesareaffectedbyL.camarainvasions.Lantanamontevidensisisalsoaweedofwoodland,forestandmangrovecommunitieswhereitdisplacesnativevegetationandreducesplantandanimalbiodiversity.AlthoughtheenvironmentalimpactsofLantanaspeciesarenotwellquantified,theyrepresentaseriousconcernandwarrantmanagementinaffectedecosystems.

Lantanacamaraisalsoamajorweedofmanyothercropsincludingforestry,particularlypine,hardwoodandrainforestspeciesplantations,andplantationsandorchardcrops.Itisaweedofroadway,railwayandutilitycorridors,providesrefugiaforpestanimalsandotherplantpathogensandmaybeallelopathic.Plantmaterialmayalsobepoisonoustohumansifingestedbutmayhavesomemedicinalusesinotherinstances.

BothLantanaspeciesarewidelyplantedasornamentalandhedgeplantsandarepopularinlandscapedesign,publicandprivategardens,inparks,onroundabouts,inmedianstrips,onroadsidecuttingsandbesidefootpathsbecausetheyarecolourful,requirelittlemaintenanceandhavesomedroughttolerance.AlternativebeneficialusesforLantanaspeciesincludetheharvestofessentialoils,useasfirewood,theprovisionofalternativeorreplacementhabitatsforanimalsandinthepreventionoferosion.

LantanacamaraisaWeedofNationalSignificance.Oneofthestrategiestoreducetheimpactsoftheseweedsistobanthesaleanddistributionofthesespecies.AllstatesandterritorieswithinAustraliahavebannedthetradeanddistributionofthisspecies.OnlyQldandtheNThaverestrictionsonthesaleandtradeofL.montevidensis. ThecontinuedsaleofornamentalvarietiesofeitherspecieshasthepotentialtoaddgeneticdiversitytotheweedyvarietiesalreadypresentinAustralia.Itislikelythatfurthergeneticdiversitywillhelpbothspeciesto

expandtheirdistributionintonewenvironmentsandtomakecontrolusingherbicidesandbiologicalagentsfarmoredifficult.Thenegativeimpactsofremovingthesespeciesfromsalearelikelytobelimitedbecausealternativespecieswhicharehardy,lowgrowing,requirelowmaintenancelevels,aredroughttolerantandsimilarlycolourfulareavailable.OneestimateindicatedthatthetotalmarketvalueofLantanaspeciesinQldwas$75,000/annum.

VariousvarietiesofL.camarahavebeendeclarednoxiousinNSWmidandnorthcoastallocalgovernmentcontrolareasandinSydney.Declarationsdonotgenerallyexistincentralandsoutherncoastalareas.Aregionalcontrolplanforthesouthcoastincludescontainment,bufferandmanagementplanstopreventthespreadofL.camarafurthersouth.

AlthoughthemanagementofbothspeciesofLantanaisproblematic,L.montevidensisisgenerallymoredifficulttocontrol.Themajorlimitingfactorsforthecontrolofbothspeciesarethesize,accessibilityandcostsofongoingcontrolofinfestationsandthelowlandvaluesthattheseinfestationsoccuron.Thesefactorsoftenseverallylimitcontroldirectedtowardsthesespecies.Anintegratedweedmanagementstrategyincludingtheuseofmanyofthefollowingstrategiesislikelytobesuccessfulhowever.

Preventionofthemovementofplantsintocleanareasviavarioushygienepracticesandabanonthesaleofthespeciesareeffectivemeansinpreventingoutbreaksofeitherspecies.Anumberofeffectiveherbicidesarecurrentlyregisteredforthecontrolofbothspecies.Theseherbicidesareeitherappliedtoactivelygrowingfoliage(includingregrowth)orascutstumporbasalapplications.Ofthefoliarherbicides,thefollowingdecreasingorderofeffectivenessisgenerallycorrect:fluroxypyr;glyphosate;piclorammixtures;dichlorprop;metsulfuronmethyl;and2,4Damine.Climaticandvarietaldifferencesmayaffectherbicideefficacy.Ongoingherbicideapplicationsonregrowthmaterialareneeded.Itisimportanttoconsiderofftargeteffectswithsomeherbicideapplications.

Fireisanotherusefulmanagementtooleventhoughanumberoffactorsaffectingitsperformancearenotwellunderstood.FireisusefulinclearingdensethicketsofL.camaraandinkillingseedsandseedlingsofL.montevidensis. Fireisalsoparticularlyuseful

whenusedpriorto,orasafollowuptochemicalormechanicalclearing.Again,offtargeteffectsneedtobeconsidered.

Mechanicalclearingusingarangeofmachineryincludingbulldozers,slashers,stickrakersorwithchainpullingequipmentisalsoeffectiveagainstL.camara.Regrowthneedstobecontrolledwithtoolssuchasherbicideapplicationsorwithhandpulling.Cultivation,generallydiscploughingfollowedbytheplantingofcompetitivepasturesisalsousefulinanumberofsituationsagainstbothLantanaspecies.TherearevariousmethodsofremovingL.camarabyhandortreatingplantswithflameweeding.Bothrevegetationandpropergrazingmanagementareimportanttoolsinpreventingthereinvasionofbothspecies.Although31differentbiologicalcontrolagentshavebeenreleasedagainstLantanaspeciesinAustralia,thesehaveprovided,atbest,onlyminororseasonalcontrolofthespecies.

RecommendationsarisingfromthisdocumenthavebeenmadetotheNoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommitteeandarecontainedinAppendix2.TheserecommendationsconsiderallLantanaspeciesforanumberofreasons.ThemostimportantoftheseisthattheL.camaraisaspeciesaggregateandmanyweedyandornamentalvarietiesofitexist.ThesecondreasonisthatitisimportanttotryandreducethecurrentsizeoftheL.montevidensisproblemwhileinfestationsinNSWarestillsmall.ThepotentialformovementofgeneticmaterialfromvarietiesofornamentalL.camaraorL.camaraxL.montevidensishybridsispossibleifweedyvarietiesofL.camaracooccur.Inthesameway,geneticmovementispossibleifornamentalvarietiesofL.montevidensisorL.camaraxL.montevidensishybridscooccurwithweedyvarietiesofL.montevidensis. ThelistingofallLantanaspeciesalsocoversthepossibilityofcontinuedtradeofvarietiesofanyLantanaspeciesif,atthepointoftradeormovement,thespeciesnameiseithernotusedornotknown.

Avarietyoffurtherresearchneedswereoutlinedaswereinformationrequirementsfromconsultation.

REFERENCESA&RMCA&NZ,A&NZE&CCFM,AgricultureandResourceManagementCouncilofAustraliaandNewZealand,AustralianandNewZealandEnvironmentandConservationCouncilandForestryMinisters(2001).WeedsofNationalSignificanceLantana(Lantanacamara)Strategicplan.NationalWeedsStrategyExecutiveCommittee,Launceston.25 pp.

Anonymous(1843).CatalogueofplantscultivatedatCamden,NewSouthWales.Sydney.

Anonymous(1857).CatalogueofplantscultivatedatCamdenPark,NewSouthWales.Sydney.

APNI,AustralianPlantNamesIndex(2007).AustralianPlantNamesIndex.IntegratedBotanicalInformationSystem(IBIS).AustralianNationalBotanicGardensandAustralianNationalHerbarium.Onlineathttp://www.anbg.gov.au/cgibin/apniAccessdateFebruary22007.

Armstrong,T.R.,Harvey,G.J.andVitelli,J.S.(1987).Lantanachemicalcontrol,herbicidescreening.In,198687AnnualReportoftheBiologicalBranch,QueenslandDepartmentofLands.QueenslandDepartmentofLands,Brisbane,Queensland.6pp.

Attwater,B.R.(1980).Germination,dormancyandmorphologyoftheseedsofherbaceousornamentalplants.SeedScienceandTechnology,8,523573.

Auld,B.A.andMedd,R.W.(1987).Weeds.AnIllustratedBotanicalGuidetotheWeedsofAustralia.InkataPress,Melbourne.pp.234235.

AustralianPesticidesandVeterinaryMedicinesAuthority(2007).PUBCRISRegisteredProductSearchEngine.Onlineathttp://services.apvma.gov.au/PubcrisWebClient/welcome.doAccessdateFebruary22007.

AustralianQuarantineandInspectionService(2007).ImportConditions.Onlineathttp://www.aqis.gov.au/icon32/asp/ex_querycontent.aspAccessdateFebruary22007.

Australia’sVirtualHerbarium(2007).MapSearchInterface.RoyalBotanicGardens,Melbourne.Onlineathttp://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/cgibin/avhpublic/avh.cgiAccessdateFebruary22007.

Bailey,F.M.(1897).OnsomeoftheintroducedplantsofQueensland.ProceedingsoftheLinnaeanSocietyofNewSouthWales,4,2636.

Bailey,F.M.andTenisonWoods,J.E.(1879).AcensusofthefloraofBrisbane.ProceedingsoftheLinnaeanSocietyofNewSouthWales,4,137204.

Bailey,J.(1841).PlantsinflowerinthemonthofJune.(AlistofplantsfloweringintheBotanicalGardensofSouthAustraliainJune1841).SouthAustralianMagazine,1,30.

Bailey,L.H.(1963).TheStandardCyclopediaofHorticulture,Volume2.TheMacmillanCompany,NewYork.pp.1820.

Barker,J.,Randall,R.andGrice,T.(2006).Weedsofthefuture?ThreatstoAustralia’sgrazingindustriesbygardenplants.FinalreporttoMeatandLivestockAustralia,NorthSydney.

Bartholomew,B.L.andArmstrong,T.R.(1978).Anewlookatlantanacontrol.QueenslandAgriculturalJournal,104,339344.

Batianoff,G.N.andButler,D.W.(2002).AssessmentofinvasivenaturalizedplantsinsoutheastQueensland.PlantProtectionQuarterly,17,2734.

Bennett,S.J.andVirtue,J.G.(2004).Salinitymitigationversusweedriskscanconflictsofinterestinintroducingnewplantsberesolved.AustralianJournalofExperimentalAgriculture,44,11411156.

Benson,J.S.andHager,T.C.(1993).Thedistribution,abundanceandhabitatofEucalyptusdunnii(Myrtaceae)(Dunn’swhitegum)inNewSouthWales.Cunninghamia,3,123145.

Benson,J.S.andHowell,J.(1994).ThenaturalvegetationoftheSydney1:100000mapsheet.Cunninghamia,3,677787.

Blood,K.(2001).EnvironmentalWeeds.AFieldGuideforSEAustralia.C.H.Jerram,SciencePublishers.MtWaverly,Victoria.pp.90.

BotanicGardensTrust(2007).PlantNETThePlantInformationNetworkSystemofBotanicGardensTrust,Sydney,Australia.Onlineathttp://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.auAccessdateFebruary22007.

Bray,S.(2002).WeedsofimportancetothegrazingindustryinsouthernQueensland.In,WeedsofsignificancetothegrazingindustriesofAustralia.Ed.T.Grice.CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagementandMeatandLivestockAustralia,pp.93100.

Carr,G.W.(1993).FloraofVictoria.Volume1Introduction.Eds.D.B.ForemanandN.GWalsh.InkataPress,Melbourne.pp.276278.

Carter,R.J.(2000).Principlesofregionalweedmanagementlegislationandquarantine.Chp.5In,AustralianWeedManagementSystems.Ed.B.M.Sindel.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.83104.

Cilliers,C.J.(1987).TheevaluationofthreeinsectnaturalenemiesforthebiologicalcontroloftheweedLantanacamaraL. JournaloftheEntomologicalSocietyofSouthAfrica,50,1534.

Clark,A.(2006).ReviewoftheprogresstowardstheLantanastrategicplan(20032006).QldDepartmentofNaturalResources,MinesandWater,Brisbane.30pp.

Clark,A.,vanOosterhout,E.,Menzies,E.,Haapakoski,H.andDay,M.(2004).LantanaatWoNSwiththecommunity?Proceedingsofthe14thAustralianWeedsConference.Eds.B.M.SindelandS.B.Johnson.WeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,Sydney.pp.627630.

Clemson,A.(1985). HoneyandPollenFlora.InkataPress,Melbourne.pp.230.

Conn,B.J.(1992).Verbenaceae.Chapter153In,FloraofNewSouthWales,Volume3.Ed.G.J.Harden.NewSouthWalesUniversityPress,Kensington,NewSouthWales.pp.611618.

Conn,B.J.(1999).Verbenaceae.ChapterIn,FloraofVictoriaVolume4.Eds.N.G.WalshandT.J.Entwisle.InkataPress,Melbourne.pp.411412.

CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagement(2003).LantanaLantanacamara. WeedManagementGuideforWeedsofNationalSignificance.CooperativeCentreforAustralianWeedManagement,Adelaide.6 pp.

CouttsSmith,A.J.andDowney,P.O.(2006).ImpactofweedsonthreatenedbiodiversityinNewSouthWales.Technicalseriesno.11.CooperativeCentreforAustralianWeedManagement,Adelaide.98 pp.

Culvenor,C.C.J.(1985).EconomiclossduetopoisonousplantsinAustralia.ProceedingsoftheAustralia-USAPoisonousPlantsSymposium.Eds.A.A.Seawright,M.P.Hegarty,L.F.JamesandR.F.Keeler.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Yeerongpilly,Queensland.pp.313.

Cummings,J.(2004).Lantanahome:Notsweetforall.Onlineathttp://www.bigscrubrainforest.org.au/news/article1106307041.htmlAccessdateFebruary22007.

Day,M.D.andHannanJones,M.A.(1999).Lantanacamarabiocontrol:cannewtechnologieshelp?Proceedingsofthe12thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.A.C.Bishop,A.BoersmaandC.D.Barnes.TasmanianWeedSociety,Hobart.pp.330333.

Day,M.D.,Wiley,C.J.,Playford,J.andZalucki,M.P.(2003).Lantana:Currentmanagementstatusandfutureprospects.AustralianCentreforInternationalResearch,Canberra.128 pp.

Day,M.D.,WilsonB.W.andNahrung,H.F.(1999).ThelifehistoryandhostrangeofCharidotispygmaea(Col.:Chrysomelidae),abiologicalcontrolagentforLantanamontevidensis(Verbenaceae).BiocontrolScienceandTechnology,9,347354.

DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation(2006).Lantanacamarakeythreateningprocessdeclaration.NSWScientificCommitteefinaldetermination.Onlineathttp://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/content/lantana_ktpAccessdateFebruary22007.

Diatloff,G.andHaseler,W.H.(1965).Varietaldifferencesinlantana.ProceedingsoftheFirstAustralianWeedsConference. Melbourne,Victoria.pp.1.111.12.

Dowling,R.M.andMcKenzie,R.A.(1993).PoisonousPlantsAFieldGuide.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Brisbane.pp.136138.

Dronamraju,K.R.(1958).ThevisitsofinsectstodifferentcolouredflowersofLantanacamaraL. CurrentScience,11,452453.

Duggin,J.A.andGentle,C.B.(1998).ExperimentalevidenceoftheimportanceofdisturbanceintensityforinvasionofLantanacamaraL.indryrainforestopenforestecotonesinnortheasternNSW,Australia.ForestEcologyandManagement,109,279292.

Ensbey,R.(2003).ManagingLantana.AgfactP7.6.42.NSWAgriculture,Orange,NewSouthWales.5 pp.

Ensbey,R.(2004).NoxiousandEnvironmentalWeedControlHandbook20042005.NewSouthWalesAgriculture,Orange,NewSouthWales.76 pp.

Ensbey,R.(2005).ReviewoflantanamanagementinNSW.UnpublishedreportforNSWDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Orange,NewSouthWales.13 pp.

Everist,S.L.(1981).PoisonousPlantsofAustralia.2ndEdition.AngusandRobertson.Sydney.pp.738748.

Fensham,R.J.,Fairfax,R.J.andCannell,R.J.(1994).TheinvasionofLantanacamaraL.inFortyMileScrubnationalpark,northQueensland.AustralianJournalofEcology,19,297305.

Fernandes,E.C.M.,Styger,E.andRakotondramasy,H.M.(2001).Mycorrhizafungaldiversityasimpactedbythelossofendemic,rainforestplantsinMadagascar.(Abstractonly,ThirdInternationalConferenceonMycorrhizas,Adelaide).Onlineathttp://www.waite.adelaide.edu.au/Soil_Water/3ICOM_ABSTs/Abstracts/abstract.htmlAccessdateFebruary22007.

Flannery,S.(1997).AReportoftheExtentoftheCreepingLantanaProblemWithinQueensland.DepartmentofNaturalResources,Brisbane.

Gentle,C.B.andDuggin,J.A.(1997a).AllelopathyasacompetitivestrategyinpersistentthicketsofLantanacamaraL.inthreeAustralianforestcommunities.PlantEcology,132,8595.

Gentle,C.B.andDuggin,J.A.(1997b).LantanacamaraL.invasionsindryrainforestopenforestecotones:Theroleofdisturbancesassociatedwithfireandcattlegrazing.AustralianJournalofEcology,22,298306.

Gentle,C.B.andDuggin,J.A.(1998).InterferenceofChoricarpialeptopetalabyLantanacamarawithnutrientenrichmentinmesicforestsontheCentralCoastofNSW.PlantEcology,136,205211.

Gillett,D.andWells,G.(1999).Tebuthiuronsoilspotprovidesexcellentwoodyweedcontrol.Proceedingsofthe12thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.A.C.Bishop,A.BoersmaandC.D.Barnes.TasmanianWeedSociety,Hobart.pp.309311.

Goodchild,N.E.(1951).ControloflantanabyculturalmethodsintheMackaydistrict.QueenslandAgriculturalJournal,72,1116.

Graaff,J.L.(1986).Lantanacamara,theplantandsomemethodsforitscontrol.SouthAfricanForestryJournal,136,2630.

Graaff,J.L.(1987).TheseedflyOphiomyialantanaeandotherfactorsresponsibleforreducinggerminationinLantanacamaraformsfoundinNatal.SouthAfricanJournalofBotany,53,104107.

Grice,A.(ed.)(2002).WeedsofsignificancetothegrazingindustriesofAustralia.CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagementandMeatandLivestockAustralia.

Hall,M.F.(2000).Weedmanagementinplantationforests.Chp.21In,AustralianWeedManagementSystems.Ed.B.M.Sindel.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.411430.

Hammer,R.L.(2004).Thelantanamess.AcriticallookatthegenusinFlorida.ThePalmetto(NewsletteroftheFloridaNativePlantSociety),23,2124.

HannanJonesM.A.(1998).TheseasonalresponseofLantanacamaratoselectedherbicides.WeedResearch,38,413423.

Harding,G.(2005).SouthCoastRegionalLantanaManagementPlan.SouthernTablelandsandSouthCoastNoxiousPlantsCommittee.Goulburn,NSW.28pp.

Harley,K.L.S.,Kerr,J.D.andKassulke,R.C.(1979).EffectsinsoutheastQueenslandduring19671972ofinsectsintroducedtocontrolLantanacamara.Entomophoga,24,6572.

Henderson,R.J.F.(1969).AcytologicalstudyofLantanamontevidensis(Spreng.)Briq.inQueensland.ContributionsfromtheQueenslandHerbarium,3,14.

Hnatiuk,R.J.(1990).CensusofAustralianVascularPlants.AustralianFloraandFaunaseries,No.11.AustralianGovernmentPublishingService,Canberra.pp.627.

Holm,L.,Pancho,J.V.,Herberger,J.P.andPlucknett,D.L.(1979).AGeographicalAtlasofWorldWeeds.JohnWileyandSons,NewYork.pp.299302.

Holm,L.G.,Plucknett,D.L.,Pancho,J.V.andHerberger,J.P.(1977).TheWorldsWorstWeeds.DistributionandBiology.EastWestCentre,Honolulu,Hawaii.pp.207.

Hosking,J.R.(inprep.).TheNaturalisedFloraofAustralia.Adatabaselisting2900naturalisednonnativeplantsinAustralia.

Howard,R.A.(1969).AchecklistofcultivarnamesusedinthegenusLantana. Arnoldia,29,73109.

Humphries,S.E.andStanton,J.P.(1992).WeedAssessmentintheWetTropicsWorldHeritageAreaofNorthQueensland.ReporttotheWetTropicsManagementAgency,Cairns,Queensland.pp.2630.

Hussey,B.M.J.,Keighery,G.J.,Cousens,R.D.,Dodd,J.andLloyd,S.G.(1997).WesternWeeds,AGuidetotheWeedsofWesternAustralia.PlantProtectionSocietyofWesternAustralia,Perth,WesternAustralia.pp.228.

Kleinschmidt,H.E.andJohnson,R.W.(1977).WeedsofQueensland.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Brisbane,Queensland.pp.186,260.

Jeffrey,P.andReady,J.(1999).Weedmanagementplanningandimplementation.Proceedingsofthe12thAustralianWeedsConference.Eds.A.C.Bishop,A.BoersmaandC.D.Barnes.TasmanianWeedSociety,Hobart.pp.8690.

Jessop,J.P.andToelken,H.R.(eds.)(1986).FloraofSouthAustralia.Part3.SouthAustralianGovernmentPrintingDivision,Adelaide.pp.11731174.

Johnson,G.W.(1872).TheGardenersDictionary.BellandDalby,London.

Khoshoo,T.N.andMahal,C.(1967).VersatilereproductioninLantanacamara.CurrentScience,36,201203.

Kugler,H.(1980).ZurBestaubungvonLantanacamaraL.Flora,169,524529.

Lall,D.,Lohan,O.P.,Vaid,J.,Sharma,O.P.andNegi,S.S.(1983b).CanLantanaseedsbeutilizedinlambrations?AnimalFeedScienceandTechnology,9,2936.

Lall,D.,Sharma,O.P.andNegi.,S.S.(1983a).Nutritivevalueoflantana(Lantanacamara)seedsforrams.IndianJournalofAnimalScience,53,10341036.

Lamb,D.(1991).Forestregenerationresearchforreservemanagement:somequestionsdeservinganswers.In,TropicalRainforestResearchinAustralia:PresentStatusandFutureDirectionsfortheInstituteofTropicalRainforestStudies.Eds.N.Goudberg,M.BonellandD.Benzaken.InstituteofTropicalRainforestStudies,Townsville,Australia.pp.177181.

Lamb,R.(1988).EcologicalandPerceptualChangestoScrublandAssociatedwithLantanaInvasion.CaringforWarringah’sBushland,ShireofWarringah,Sydney,NewSouthWales.pp.17.

Lamp,C.andCollet,F.(1989).FieldGuidetoWeedsinAustralia.InkataPress,Melbourne,Victoria.

Liddy,J.(1985).AnoteontheassociationsofbirdsandlantananearBeerburrum,southeasternQueensland.Corella,9,125126.

Love,C.O.(1989).ControlofLantanacamarawithfluroxypyrbydifferentapplicationtechniquesincoastalNewSouthWalesandQueensland,Australia.Proceedingsofthe12thAsian-PacificWeedScienceSocietyConference,Eds.J.O.Guh,J.C.Chun,G.C.Chung,J.C.Kim,S.L.Kwon,S.S.LeeandJ.Y.Pyon.Seoul,Korea,Volume2.AsianPacificWeedScienceSociety,Seoul,Korea.pp.353357.

Low,T.(2001).FeralFuture.TheUntoldStoryofAustralia’sExoticInvaders.PenguinBooks,Camberwell,Victoria.pp.240.

Loyn,R.H.andFrench,K.(1991).BirdsandenvironmentalweedsinsoutheasternAustralia.PlantProtectionQuarterly,6,137149.

Maher,P.E.,Davis,B.J.,Day,M.D.,Mackey,A.P.,Palmer,W.A.andSnowE.L.(2004).Whathappenswhenabiocontrolagentattacksexoticbutdesiredornamentals?Proceedingsofthe14thAustralianWeedsConference.Eds.B.M.SindelandS.B.Johnson.WeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,Sydney.pp.187189.

Mahoney,M.D.(1967).TheweedcontrolproblemwithintheDepartmentofRailways,NewSouthWales.ProceedingsoftheWeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,1, 13.113.5.

Maiden,J.H.(1895).TheweedsofNewSouthWaleswithsuggestedmeasures,legislativeorotherwise,fortheirdestruction.Part1General.AgriculturalGazetteofNewSouthWales,6,152158.

Maiden,J.H.(1920).TheweedsofNewSouthWales.Part1.GovernmentPrinter,Sydney.

Mathur,G.andMohanRam,H.Y.(1986).FloralbiologyandpollinationofLantanacamara. Phytomorphology,36,79100.

McMillan,M.G.(1989).Updateonchemicalcontroloflantana.Proceedingsofthe5thBiennialNoxiousPlantConference,Volume1.ed.P.Gorham.NewSouthWalesAgricultureandFisheries,Lismore,NewSouthWales.pp.8386.

McMillan,M.G.(1991).Calibrateforspotspraying.AGNOTEReg2/010.NewSouthWalesAgricultureandFisheries,GlenInnes,NewSouthWales.3pp.

Michael,P.W.(1972).TheweedsthemselvesEarlyhistoryandIdentification.ProceedingsoftheWeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,5,318.

Munir,A.A.(1996).AtaxonomicreviewofLantanacamaraL.andL.montevidensis(Spreng.)Briq.(Verbenaceae)inAustralia.JournaloftheAdelaideBotanicGardens,17,127.

Natarajan,A.T.andAhuja,M.R.(1957).CytotaxonomicalstudiesinthegenusLantana.JournaloftheIndianBotanicalSociety,36,3545.

Neal,J.(1999).AssessingtheSterilityofOrnamentalLantanaVarieties.AreweExacerbatingtheWeedProblem?Honoursthesis,DepartmentofBotany,UniversityofQueensland,Brisbane.

NewSouthWalesDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,(2005).NoxiousWeedDeclarationsinNewSouthWales.Onlineathttp://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/noxweed/AccessdateMay122005.

O’Donnell,C.(2002).TheCreepingLantanaHandbook.AGuidetoEcology,ControlandManagement.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,NaturalResourcesandMines,Brisbane.32pp.

O’Donnell,C.andPanetta,D.(2000).CreepinglantanaAnupdateonselectedresearchactivities.Proceedingsofthe6thQueenslandWeedSymposium. TheWeedSocietyofQueensland,Brisbane.pp.117121.

O’Donnell,C.,Panetta,D.andFrancis,P.(1999).Controlofcreepinglantanawithcompetitivepastures.Proceedingsofthe12thAustralianWeedsConference. eds.A.C.Bishop,A.BoersmaandC.D.Barnes.TasmanianWeedSociety,Hobart.pp.514.

Officer,D.(2002).WeedsofsignificancetograzingindustriesofcoastalNSW.In,WeedsofsignificancetothegrazingindustriesofAustralia.Ed.T.Grice.CooperativeResearchCentreforAustralianWeedManagementandMeatandLivestockAustralia,pp.8492.

Palmer,W.A.,Day,M.D.,Dhileepan.D.,Snow,E.L.andMackey,A.P.(2004).Analysisofthenontargetattackbythelantanasapsuckingbug,Aconophoracompressa,anditsimplicationsforbiologicalcontrolinAustralia.Eds.B.M.SindelandS.B.Johnson.WeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,Sydney.pp.341344.

Palmer,W.A.,Dhileepan.D.,Day,M.D.,Trevino,M.andSnow,E.L.(2005).Investigationsresultingfromthenontargetattackbythelantanabug(Aconophoracompressa). Chp.1,In,TechnicalHighlights,WeedandPestAnimalResearch200405.QueenslandDepartmentofNaturalResources,MinesandWater,Brisbane.pp.1920.

Parsons,W.T.andCuthbertson,E.G.(2001).NoxiousWeedsofAustralia,2ndedition.CSIROPublishing,Melbourne.pp.627634.

QNRM,QueenslandNaturalResourcesandMines,(2004).Lantana.Lantanacamara. FactsPestSeries,QNRM01251. TheStateofQueensland,DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines,Brisbane,Queensland.4 pp.

QNRW,QueenslandNaturalResourcesandWater,(2007). DeclaredplantsofQueensland. Weedsandpestanimalmanagement.Onlineathttp://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/pests/weeds/declared_plants/index.htmlAccessdateFebruary22007.

Randall,R.(2001).Gardenthugs,anationallistofinvasiveandpotentiallyinvasivegardenplants.PlantProtectionQuarterly,16,138171.

Sahu,A.K.andPanda,S.(1998).Populationdynamicsofafewdominantplantspeciesaroundindustrialcomplexes,inWestBengal,India.JournaloftheBombayNaturalHistorySociety,95,1518.

SaintSmith,J.H.(1964).Pastureweedsofthewettropics.QueenslandAgriculturalJournal,90,289300.

Sanders,R.W.(1989).Lantanasect.camara(Verbenaceae)inHispaniola:noveltiesandnotes.Moscosoa,5,202215.

Sanders,R.W.(2006).TaxonomyofLantanasect.Lantana(Verbenaceae):1.CorrectapplicationofLantanacamaraandassociatednames.Sida,22,381421.

Schemske,D.W.(1976).PollinatorspecificityinLantanacamaraandL.trifolia(Verbenaceae).Biotropica,8,260264.

Scott,L.J.,Graham,G.C.,HannanJones,M.andYeates,D.K.(1997).DNAprofilingresolvesthelimitedimportanceofflowercolourindefiningvarietiesofLantanacamara. Electrophoresis,18,15601563.

Scott,L.J.,HannanJones,M.A.andGraham,G.C.(2002).AffinitiesofLantanacamaraintheAustraliaPacificRegion.Proceedingsofthe13thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.H.SpaffordJacob,J.DoddandJ.H.Moore.September2002,Perth,WesternAustralia.pp.471474.

Seawright,A.A.(1965).ToxicityofLantanaspp.inQueensland.AustralianVeterinaryJournal,41,235238.

Seawright,A.A.andHrdlicka,J.(1977).TheoraltoxicityforsheepoftriterpeneacidsisolatedfromLantanacamara.AustralianVeterinaryJournal,53,230235.

Shepherd,R.C.H.(2004).PrettybutPoisonous.PlantsPoisonoustoPeople,anIllustratedGuideforAustralia.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.153.

Shepherd,R.C.H.,Richardson,R.G.andRichardson,F.J.(2001).PlantsofImportancetoAustralia.Achecklist.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.95.

Shepherd,T.W.(1851).CatalogueofPlantsCultivatedattheDarlingNursery,Sydney,NSW.(Nopublisher).

Sindel,B.M.(2000).Weedsandtheirimpact.Chp.1In,AustralianWeedManagementSystems.Ed.B.M.Sindel.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.316.

Singh,M.andAchhireddy,N.R.(1987).Influenceoflantanaongrowthofvariouscitrusrootstocks.HortScience,22,385386.

Smith,L.S.andSmith,D.A.(1982).ThenaturalisedLantanacamaracomplexineasternAustralia.QueenslandBotanyBulletin,1,126.

Spies,J.J.(1984a).HybridisationpotentialofLantanacamara(Verbenaceae).GarciadeOrta,Ser.Bot.Lisboa,6,145150.

Spies,J.J.(1984b).AcytotaxonomicstudyofLantanacamara(Verbenaceae)fromSouthAfrica.JournalofSouthAfricanBotany, 3,231250.

Spies,J.J.andduPlessis,H.(1987).SterileLantanacamara:factortheory.SouthAfricanJournalofPlantandSoil,4,171174.

Spies,J.J.andStirton,C.H.(1982).EmbryosacdevelopmentinsomeSouthAfricancultivarsofLantanacamara.Bothalia, 14,113117.

Stanley,T.D.andRoss,E.M.(1986).FloraofSouthEasternQueensland.Volume2.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries,Brisbane.pp.622.

Stansbury,C.D.andVivianSmith,G.(2003).InteractionsbetweenfrugivorousbirdsandweedsinQueenslandasdeterminedfromasurveyofbirders.PlantProtectionQuarterly,18,157165.

Stirton,C.H.(1977).SomethoughtsonthepolyploidcomplexLantanacamaraL.(Verbenaceae).Proceedingsofthe2ndNationalWeedsConferenceofSouthAfrica. pp.321340.

Stock,D.H.(2004).ThedynamicsofLantanacamaraL.invasionofsubtropicalrainforestinsoutheastQueensland.DoctorofPhilosophyThesis,GriffithUniversity,GoldCoast,Australia.

Stock,D.H.andWild,C.H.(2002).Thecapacityoflantana(LantanacamaraL.)todisplacenativevegetation.Proceedingsofthe13thAustralianWeedsConference.Eds.H.SpaffordJacob,J.DoddandJ.H.Moore.September2002,Perth,WesternAustralia.pp.104107.

Stock,D.H.andWild,C.(2006).ThedynamicsofLantanacamaraL.invasionofsubtropicalrainforestinsoutheastQueensland.Proceedingsofthe15thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.C.Preston,J.H.WattsandN.D.Crossman.September2006,Adelaide,SouthAustralia.pp.247250.

Stocker,G.C.andMott,J.J.(1981).FireinthetropicalforestsandwoodlandsofnorthernAustralia.Chp.18In,FireandtheAustralianbiota.Eds.A.M.Gill,R.H.GrovesandI.M.Noble.AustralianAcademyofScience,Canberra.pp.425439.

Swarbrick,J.T.(1982).WeedsofAustralia.4. Verbenaceaethelantanas,fogfruit,Verbenasandsnakeweeds.AustralianWeeds,March,2022.

Swarbrick,J.T.(1986).HistoryofthelantanasinAustraliaandoriginsoftheweedybiotypes.PlantProtectionQuarterly,1,115121.

Swarbrick,J.T.,Wilson,B.W.andHannanJones,M.A.(1998).Lantanacamara. Chp.9In,TheBiologyofAustralianWeeds.Volume2.Eds.F.D.Panetta,R.H.GrovesandR.C.H.Shepherd.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.119140.

Tandon,S.L.andBali,P.N.(1955).MorphologicalandcytologicalstudiesofthediploidandthenaturallyoccurringtriploidinLantanacamaraL. IndianJournalofHorticulture,12,8589.

Thaman,R.R.(1974).Lantanacamara:Itsintroduction,dispersalandimpactonislandsofthetropicalPacificOcean.Micronesica,JournaloftheUniversityofGuam,10,1739.

Tomley,A.J.andRiding,N.(2002).Prospodiumtuberculatum,lantanarust,anewagentreleasedforthebiocontrolofthewoodyshrubLantanacamara. Proceedingsofthe13thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.H.SpaffordJacob,J.DoddandJ.H.Moore.September2002,Perth,WesternAustralia.pp.389390.

Tyron,H.(1914).Reportoftheentomologistandvegetablepathologist.In,AnnualreportoftheDepartmentofAgricultureandStockfortheyear19131914.QueenslandGovernment,Brisbane,Queensland.pp.114120.

vanOosterhout,E.(2004).LantanaControlManual.CurrentManagementandControlOptionsforLantana(Lantanacamara)inAustralia.QueenslandDepartmentofNaturalResources,MinesandEnergy.Brisbane.88 pp.

Vidler,S.J.(2004).Usingthecuteandfurries:theroleofthreatenedspeciesinweedawareness.Proceedingsofthe14thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.B.M.SindelandS.B.Johnson.WeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,Sydney.pp.652658.

Vitelli,J.andDorney,B.(1991).Chemicalcontroloflantana,Lantanacamara. TechnicalHighlights1990/91.LandProtectionBranch,QueenslandDepartmentofLands.QueenslandDepartmentofLands,Brisbane,Queensland.pp.27.

Vranjic,J.A.,Groves,R.H.andWillis,A.J.(2000).Environmentalweedmanagementsystems.Chp.17In,AustralianWeedManagementSystems.Ed.B.M.Sindel.Richardson,Meredith,Victoria.pp.329354.

VivianSmith,G.,Gosper,C.G.,Wilson,A.andHoad,K.(2006).Lantanacamaraandthefruitandseeddamagingfly,Ophiomyialantanae(Agromyzidae):Seedpredator,recruitmentpromoterordispersaldisrupter?BiologicalControl,36,247257.

Walton,C.(2003).ThebiologyofAustralianweeds.42.Leucaenaleucocephala(Lamark)deWit.PlantProtectionQuarterly,18,9098.

Walton,C.(2004).100yearsofbiologicalcontrolinQueensland.Proceedingsofthe14thAustralianWeedsConference. Eds.B.M.SindelandS.B.Johnson.WeedSocietyofNewSouthWales,Sydney.pp.357363.

Waterhouse,D.F.(Chairman)(1970).Biologicalcontroloflantanareview.Unpublishedminutesofmeeting.CSIRO,DivisionofEntomology,Brisbane.

Waterhouse,D.F.andNorris,K.R.(1987).LantanacamaraL. Chp.48,In,Biologicalcontrol.Pacificprospects.InkataPress,Melbourne,Victoria.pp.355372.

Webb,C.J.,Sykes,W.R.andGarnockJones,P.J.(1988).FloraofNewZealand.VolumeIV.NaturalisedPteridophytes,GymnospermsandDicotyledons.DepartmentofScientificandIndustrialResearch,Christchurch,NewZealand.pp.12731275.

Wells,C.H.(1984).Useofasprinklersprayerforforestweedcontrol.Proceedingsofthe7thAustralianWeedsConference. Volume1.WeedSocietyofWesternAustralia,Perth,WesternAustralia.pp.6468.

White,C.T.(1929).ThecorrectbotanicalidentityofthelantanasnaturalisedinQueensland.QueenslandAgriculturalJournal,31,294296.

Willson,M.F.andCrome,F.H.J.(1989).PatternsofseedrainattheedgeofatropicalQueenslandrainforest.JournalofTropicalEcology,5,301308.

Winder,J.A.(1980).FactorsAffectingtheGrowthofLantanainBrazil.DoctorofPhilosophyThesis,UniversityofReading,Reading,England.

Figure14A flowering and fruiting plant of the common pink variety of Lantana camara, near Copmanhurst (NSW north coast, October 2005) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

Figure15Vegetative naturalised plants of Lantana montevidensis (mid ground), near Oxley Lookout, Tamworth (April 2006) (Source: S. Johnson, NSW DPI).

APPENDICES Queensland

APPENDIX 1

DeclarationsofLantanaspeciesacrossAustralia

NewSouthWales

LantanacamaraisadeclaredweedundertheNoxiousWeedsAct1993inNSW.Priorto2006,twodeclarationsappliedtoweedypinkandredfloweringvarieties.TheseweretheW2NoxiousweeddeclarationwhichmeantthattheweedwastobefullyandcontinuouslysuppressedanddestroyedandaW3Noxiousweeddeclarationwhichmeantthattheweedwastobepreventedfromspreadinganditsnumbersanddistributionreduced.ThefollowinginformationwasdrawnfromNewSouthWalesDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries(2005).

ThepinkandredfloweredvarietyofL.camaraweredeclaredasW2weedsineachofthefollowingcontrolareas:Ashfield;Auburn;Bankstown;Botany;Burwood;Campbelltown;CanadaBay;Canterbury;Cessnock;Fairfield;Holroyd;Hornsby;HuntersHill;Hurstville;Kogarah;Kuringgai;LaneCove;Leichhardt;Liverpool;Manly;Marrickville;Mosman;NorthSydney;Parramatta;Pittwater;Randwick;Rockdale;Ryde;Strathfield;Sutherland;Sydney;Warringah;Waverley;Willoughby;andWoollahra;

ThepinkfloweringvarietyofL.camarawasdeclaredasaW2weedintheEurobodallalocalcontrolarea.

TheredfloweringvarietyofL.camarawasdeclaredasaW2weedinthefollowingcontrolareas:ClarenceValley(W2andW3declarationsappliedbecausethisareaincludedtheformerareasofCopmanhurst,Grafton,MacleanandPristineWaters,areaswhichhaddifferingdeclarations);andGreaterTaree,andaW3weedinthefollowingareas:Bellingen;CoffsHarbour;Hastings;Kempsey;andNambucca.

AllLantanaspeciesweredeclaredasW2weedsonLordHoweIsland.

AllcolouredvarietiesofL.camaraexceptthepinkfloweringvarietyweredeclaredasW3weedsintheFarNorthCoastCountyCouncil(includedtheformerareasofBallina,Byron,Kyogle,Lismore,RichmondvalleyandTweed).

AllLantanaspeciesaredeclaredClass3pestsinQldundertheLandProtection(PestandStockRouteManagement)Act2002. Class3pests,inthiscaseweeds,aredefinedasweedsthathaveestablishedinQldandhave,orcouldhave,adverseeconomic,environmentalandsocialeffects(includinginotherstates).Itisanoffencetointroduce,release,giveaway,sellorotherwisesupplyaClass3pest.ThesaleofallLantanaspeciesbecameillegalinNovember2003.LandholdersmayberequiredtocontrolaClass3pestifitisanenvironmental,socialoreconomicthreatinoradjacenttoanenvironmentallysignificantareasuchasanationalparkorreserves,butonlyifthesearefreefromtheweed.

Certainlocalgovernmentareashavealsodeclaredbothweedsunderlocallawrequiringcontrolinareasnotinoradjacenttoenvironmentallysignificantareas:Bowen;Cardwell;ChartersTowers;Dalby;Eacham;Gayndah;Johnstone;Kilkivan;Kingaroy;Maroochy;Maryborough;Mirani;Murgon;Pittsworth;Rockhampton;Sarina;Tara;andTownsville.

NorthernTerritory

BothL.camaraandL.montevidensisaredeclaredintheNTundertheWeedsManagementAct2001butunderdifferinglevels.TheseareaClassBNoxiousweed(regionaldeclaration)thatgrowthandspreadarecontrolledoutsidetownareasandasaClassCNoxiousweedwhichisnottobeintroducedintotheNT.DeclaredweedsarerestrictedfromsaleintheNT.

SouthAustralia

LantanacamarahasbeendeclaredasaClass11category3plantundertheNaturalResourceManagementAct2004. Thisdeclarationmeansthatthespeciesisrestrictedfromsalebutthatcontrolisnotrequired.

Tasmania

LantanacamarahasbeenprohibitedfromimportandsaleinTasmaniaundertheWeedManagementAct1999.Thespeciesmaynotbeotherwisesupplied.Landholdersmayberequiredtocontrolthespeciesontheirpropertyifinfestationsarefound.

WesternAustralia

LantanacamarahasbeendeclaredinWAundertheAgriculturalandRelatedResourcesProtectionAct1976andthePlantDiseasesAct1914. Thisdeclarationhasresultedinabanontheimportandtradeofthisspecies.ThedeclarationdoesnotincludeL.montevidensis.

Victoria

LantanacamarahasbeendeclaredanoxiousweedinVicundertheCatchmentandLandProtectionAct1994.Thetradeanddistributionofthespeciesisrestrictedunderthisdeclaration.

AustralianCapitalTerritory

LantanacamarahasbeendeclaredaprohibitedpestplantintheACTunderthePestPlantsandAnimalsAct2005. Thespeciesisnotabletobesuppliedorpropagatedasaresult.

Commonwealthlegislation

AllLantanaspeciesandmaterialincludingnurserystock,plantpartsandseedswereprohibitedentrytoAustraliaundertheQuarantineProclamation1998fromlate2006.

APPENDIX 2 geneticmaterialintotheenvironmentandsupportthenationalbanontheWoNSspecies.

RecommendationsfordeclarationsofLantanaspeciesinNSW

TherecommendationsfordeclarationsofLantanaspeciesinNSWthatarisefromthisreviewhavebeenoutlinedbelow(seealsoFigureA1overleaf).TheserecommendationsweremadetotheNoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommitteeforconsiderationinWeedControlOrderNumber19oftheNoxiousWeedsAct1993.

ItisrecommendedthatallLantanaspeciesbedeclaredasClass3,Class4andClass5noxiousweedsinNSW.Thesedeclarationsshouldapplytolocalgovernmentcontrolareasasfollows:

n aClass3declarationinthelocalgovernmentcontrolareasofBegaandEurobodallatosupportmanagementeffortstoreduceLantanaspeciesintheproposedSoutherncontainmentzoneinNSW(Harding2005).AClass3declarationisalsoappropriateforLordHoweIslandtosupportcontrolefforts;

n aClass4declarationinallotherlocalgovernmentcontrolareaswhereeithervarietyofL.camarahasbeendeclaredpriorto2006.ThesedeclarationswouldincludethelocalgovernmentcontrolareasofAshfield;Auburn;Bankstown;Bellingen;Botany;Burwood;Campbelltown;CanadaBay;Canterbury;Cessnock;ClarenceValley;CoffsHarbour;Fairfield;FarNorthCoast;GreaterTaree;Holroyd;Hornsby;HuntersHill;Hurstville;Kempsey;Kiama;Kogarah;Kuringgai;LaneCove;Leichhardt;Liverpool;Manly;Marrickville;Mosman;Nambucca;NorthSydney;Parramatta;Pittwater;PortMacquarieHastings;Randwick;Rockdale;Ryde;Shellharbour;Shoalhaven;SouthSydney;Strathfield;Sutherland;Sydney;Warringah;Waverley;Willoughby;Wollongong;andWoollahra.Thesedeclarationswouldensurethatlocalgovernmentareascouldcontinuetomanageandreducetheincidenceofthisspeciessothatfurtherspreadandeconomicimpactsarereduced.ManagementplansneedtoincludeanintegratedprogramofmanagementmethodsasoutlinedinthisdocumentforthevarietiesofL.camaraorL.montevidensispresent;and

n aClass5declarationinalllocalgovernmentareasinNSWtopreventtradeanddistributionofLantanaspecieswillpreventthefurthermovementof

AClass3declarationisappropriatefor“plantsthatposeaseriousthreattoprimaryproductionortheenvironmentofanareatowhichtheorderapplies,arenotwidelydistributedintheareaandarelikelytospreadintheareaortoanotherarea”.

AClass4declarationisappropriatefor“plantsthatposeathreattoprimaryproduction,theenvironmentorhumanhealth,arewidelydistributedintheareatowhichtheorderappliesandarelikelytospreadintheareaortoanotherarea”.

AClass5declarationisappropriatefor“plantsthatarelikely,bytheirsaleorthesaleoftheirseedsormovementwithinthestateoranareaofthestate,tospreadinthestateoroutsidethestate”.

Thereareanumberofoperationalmattersthatneedtoaccompanythesedeclarationsasfollows:

n thedevelopmentofregionalLantanaweedmanagementplansencompassinganylocalgovernmentcontrolareasthathaveanyweedyLantanaspeciesoutsideofornamental,landscapeand/orgardenplantingswherethespeciesarenotdeclaredunderOrder19oftheNoxiousWeedsAct1993;

n theongoingsurveillanceandmonitoringofanyLantanaspeciesinallotherlocalgovernmentcontrolareasofNSW(wheretherearenooutbreaksoftheweed),whethertheseareashaveanyLantanaspeciesasornamental,landscapeand/orgardenplantingsornot;and

n thecontinuedprohibitiononthesaleormovementofplants,seedsorotherplantmaterialofLantanaspecies.

ConsiderationofaClass2declarationforLantanaspeciesmaybeconsideredforsouthcoastlocalgovernmentcontrolareasaftertheimplementationoftheSouthCoastRegionalLantanaManagementPlan(Harding2005)ortoLordHoweIslandtosupporteradicationattempts,ifappropriate.

Althoughdesirable,itisnotfeasibletorequirealllocalgovernmentcontrolareastoremoveallamenityplantingsofLantanamaterial.Astatewidelocal

governmentandpubliceducationcampaignshouldencouragerelevantstakeholderstoremovesuchplantingsandreplacethemwithalternativeplantspeciesthatareindigenoustothearea.Alternatively,acampaignsimilartothatencouragedbytheOrangecitycouncilfortheremovalofLigustrum(privet)maybeappropriatewhereeverLantanaspecieshavebeenplanted,thatis,peopletradingtheremovedweedfornewtubestockmaterialofmoredesirableornamentalspecies.

Postscript

DeclarationsarisingfromtheNoxiousWeedsAdvisoryCommitteesrecommendationscanbefoundinWeedControlOrderNumber19oftheNoxiousWeedsAct1993,publishedintheNewSouthWalesGovernmentGazetteNumber166,pp.1167111890.

FigureA1.Declarations of Lantana species in mainland NSW recommended to the Noxious Weeds Advisory Committee for consideration in Weed Control Order Number 19 of the Noxious Weeds Act 1993. Lantana species on Lord Howe Island are recommended to be declared as Class 3 weeds. Declaration in Class 3 and 4 areas also includes declaration at Class 5 (Source: A. Maguire, NSW DPI, used with permission).

REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW 63 SPECIES IN NSW 63 REVIEW OF THE DECLARATION OF LANTANA SPECIES IN NSW SPECIES IN NSW LANTANALANTANALANTANA SPECIES IN NSW LANTANA

Review of the declaration of Lantana species

Documents

Transcript of Review of the declaration of Lantana species

Hunter Region Priority Weed Lantana · 2020-05-07 · of the Hunter region. • All parts of Lantana are poisonous to animals and humans if eaten. Lantana can cause vomiting, diarrhoea,

How Lantana invades dry deciduous forest: a case study ... Lantana... · How Lantana invades dry deciduous forest: a case study from Vindhyan highlands, India GYAN P. SHARMA1,2* &

Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management ... · PDF filefencing using Lantana Camara ( an invasive species in this region) Low land irrigated paddy ... previous slide.

Lantana camara

Lantana poisoning

TOWN OF LANTANA 2010/11 BUDGET WORKSHOP Town of Lantana Budget Workshop June 28, 2010 5:30 PM.

Lantana Char Project

Control of Lantana in Pastures - UF/IFAS · 2020. 2. 11. · Introduction Lantana (Lantana camara) is a woody member of the Verbenaceae that is native to the tropical Americas (Figure

The invasive ‘Lantana camara L.’ hybrid complex ... · INTRODUCTION A scourge of the Old World, ‘lantana’ (Fig. 1), ... Fig. 1.Lantana camaraL.(sensu lato) (Drawn by R.Weber,

Chapter 8 STREETSCAPES, PARKS & TRAILSJusticia californica Chuparosa Justicia spicigera Mexican Honeysuckle Lantana species Gold, Yellow, Red, Purple Trailing Leucophyllum candidum

· Guacamayo Monstera species Family: Araceae Stachytarpheta frantzii Family: Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta Rabo de gato Lantana camara Family: Verbenaceae Lantana Cinco negritos Pro

IMPACT OF Lantana camara INVASION ON A CATTLE/WILDLIFE ... · Lantana camara, is a shrub species that originates from tropical America. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN,

Effects of a highly invasive plant (Lantana camara) on an ... · the alien invasive plant Lantana camara. Lantana camara and mango share similar floral characteristics and co-occur

Review of the declaration of lantana species in NSW - part 2 · Lantana naturalised in Australia, L. camara and L. montevidensis are both native to tropical South America. Lantana

Lantana Camara Slide Show-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Sydney Weeds Committees€¦ · Web viewLantana (Lantana camara) & Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) Weed species will regenerate from untreated stumps and this

lantana sellowiana5

Lantana species ‘New Gold’

Lantana Rev

TOWN OF LANTANA FY 2010/11 BUDGET WORKSHOP Town of Lantana Budget Workshop July 26, 2010 5:30 PM.