Research Methods

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sevinc KURT

Cyprus International University

Research Methods

Research Methods and Statistics are tools.

Concern is:•How to use them?•When to use them?

Ways of Knowing (Kerlinger, 1986)

1. Method of Tenacity (Always Believed)

2. Method of Intuition (Feels Good)

3. Method of Authority (Respected Source)

4. Method of Science (Empirical/Objective

The Goals of Science?

1. Description

2. Explanation

3. Prediction

4. Control

Scientific Methodology

Scientific Methodology = a systematic analysis of the rational and experimental principles which guide an inquiry.

Scientific Method involves:

1. Theory = an integrated set of principles that explain and predict facts

2. Hypothesis = a prediction of what is the case (fact) based on theory

3. Observation = a comparison of hypothesis to what is the case

What Research Is Not

Research isn’t information gathering:

- Gathering information from resources such books or magazines isn’t research. - No contribution to new knowledge.

Research isn’t the transportation of facts:

- Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t

constitute research.

- No contribution to new knowledge although this might make existing knowledge more accessible.

What Research Is

Research is:

•“…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

•Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS

What is Research

Systematic inquiry directed toward to creation of knowledge (Groat Wang, p7)

Scientific, systematic or other approach used to study a problem

An acceptable approach to acquire dependable & useful information about our problem so we can then analyze the information

Regardless of the discipline, research is usually a systematic and objective search for reliable information

Research Characteristics

1. Originates with a question or problem.2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.4. Often divides main problem into

subproblems.5. Guided by specific problem, question, or

hypothesis.6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.7. Requires collection and interpretation of

data.8. Cyclical (helical) in nature.

Research Projects

Research begins with a problem.

-This problem need not be Earth-shaking.

Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part of research.

In general, good research projects should:

- Address an important question. - Advance knowledge.

Research Project Pitfalls

The following kinds of projects usually don’t make for good research:

- Self-enlightenment.- Comparing data sets.- Correlating data sets.- Problems with yes / no answers.

High-Quality Research

Good research requires:

-The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined.

-The process to be clearly explained so that it can be reproduced and verified by other researchers.

-Highly ethical standards be applied.

-All limitations be documented.

-Data be adequately analyzed and explained.

Sources of Research Problems

Observation.

Literature reviews.

Professional conferences.

Experts.

Stating the Research Problem

Once you’ve identified a research problem:-State that problem clearly and

completely.-Determine the process of the research.

Identify subproblems:-Completely researchable units.-Small in number.-Add up to the total problem.-Must be clearly tied to the

interpretation of the data.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.

-There is often a 1-1 correspondence between a subproblem and a hypothesis.

-Hypotheses can direct later research activities since they can help determine the nature of the research and methods applied.

Delimitations

All research has limitations and thus certain work that will not be performed.

The work that will not be undertaken is described as the delimitations of the research.

Importance of the Study

Many research problems have a kind of theoretical feel about them. Such projects often need to be justified.

-What is the research project’s practical value?

Without this justification, it will prove difficult to convince others that the problem in question is worth study.

Research Process and Design (Umbach)

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The Research Process—Seven Phases

1. Select a general problem2. Review the literature on the problem3. Decide the specific research problem,

question, or hypothesis4. Determine the design and

methodology5. Collect data6. Analyze data and present the results7. Interpret the findings and state

conclusions or summary regarding the problem

The Research Spiral

Research Process and Design (Umbach)

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Select a general problem

Conduct literatur

e review

Exhaustive review

Preliminary search,

later expanded

Select specific problem, research

question, or hypothesis

Decide design and methodology

Collect data

Analyze and present

data

Interpret

findings

State conclusion/

generalization about problem

Integrative diagrams

Statistical tables

The Research Process (M & S, p. 11)

22Research Design and Methodology (Kurt)

Research DesignResearch design describes how

the study was conducted

◦What is general plan ◦How research is set up◦What happens to the subjects◦What were methods of data

collection

Research Design

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Three Major Categories of Research Design

Quantitative◦Experimental (true, quasi, single-

subject)◦Nonexperimental (descriptive,

comparative, correlational, ex post facto)

QualitativeMixed Methods

Common Methodologies

Methodologies are high-level approaches to conducting research.

-The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on the research being performed.

Two commonly used research methodologies:

-Quantitative.-Qualitative.

(Lately Mixed research methodology is also used)-

Are the data primarily in the

form of Numbers or Words

STARTWords Numbers

QUALITATATIVE

QUANTITATIVE

Does the researcher have control over an

independent variable?No

Nonexperimental

YesExperimental

is random assignment

used?

YesTrue

experimental

No

Quasiexperiment

al

is the study investigating how variables

change together?

Yes

No

Correlational

Survey

Research Design: Qualitative or Quantitative?

Methodology Comparison

Quantitative

Explanation, predictionTest theoriesKnown variablesLarge sampleStandardized instrumentsDeductive

Qualitative

Explanation, description

Build theoriesUnknown variablesSmall sampleObservations,

interviewsInductive

Methodology Comparison

Methodology Comparison

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Mixed Methods Research

Identifying a Research Problem

What is a Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

The Research Problem

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Reviewing The Literature

Types Of Research Design

• experimental• survey• case study• comparative• grounded theory• ethnography• action research• cross-sectional and longitudinal

Rare in Social Studies, has been used in social psychology.

Method of the natural sciences = positivist

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Experimental Design

Experiment

64

Involves:• the definition of a theoretical hypothesis;• the selection of samples of individuals from known populations;• allocations of samples to different experimental conditions;• introduction of a planned change on one or more of the variables;• measurement on a small number of the variables;• control of other variables.

Sir Isaac Newton

Experimental Design

Survey

Cross sectional design.Data collected by questionnaire

or structured interview from a sample of respondents

Looking for patterns of association / correlation.

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Survey

Surveys

66

• Allied to the deductive approach;

• Are economical but you need time to design and pilot the questionnaire;

• Often involve q’aires but can also involve structured observation.

Survey

Research questions appropriate for a survey

6710

1. Behaviour.

2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.

3. Characteristics.

4. Expectations.

5. Self-classification.

6. Knowledge.

Survey

Main advantages of survey

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• ability to collect large amounts of data;

• the relatively cheap cost at which these data may be collected;

• perceived as authoritative by some;

Survey

The more structured the techniques...

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A) The more respondents can be involved

B) The easier coding and pre-coding becomes

C) The easier quantification, comparisonand measurement becomes

Survey

70

D) The easier it becomes to analyse statistically

E) The greater reliability likely

reliability is about accuracy, consistency, precisionand lack of error- the ability to produce results which are dependable, repeatable.

The more structured the techniques...

Survey

71

A) The less possibility for understandingrespondents meanings and motives

B) The greater the possibility of validity problems arising e.g. do all respondents interpret q’s the same way?

But, the more structured the techniques...

Survey

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C) The more the richness of qualitative accounts is lost

D) The less it tells us about the subjective worldof the respondents……hence the need for a‘phenomenological /naturalistic ’ inquiry.

But, the more structured the techniques...

Survey

Detailed / Intensive analysis of a single case. School, Community, Family, Organisation.

Can be both quantitative and qualitative.

If qualitative likely to use inductive approach.

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Case Study

Issue of Generalisability, how can a single case be representative.

Case study offers intensive examination of a single case, key issue is not Generalisability but development of ideas / theory = inductive.

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Case Study

Comparison, learn more about social phenomena = welfare state, impact of legislation if we compare to a different setting

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Comparative Research

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Barney Glaser GTI

• Data collection starts without any formal theoretical framework.

• Theory is developed from data by a series of observations, which leads to• the generation of predictions that are• tested in further observations, which may• confirm or otherwise the predictions.

Theory is grounded in continual reference to the data.

.

Grounded theory

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• Firmly rooted in the inductive approach.

• Developed out of field work in anthropology.

• Purpose : to interpret the world the way the ‘locals’ interpret it.

• Is time consuming./ problems of access.

• Linked to participant observation.

Etnography

Ethnography

Listens to and engages in conversations

Interviews informantsCollects documentsDevelop understanding of culture

and people’s behaviour within the context of that culture.

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Etnography

Action researcher and client = school, hospital, prison collaborate in the definition of a problem and development of a solution.

Emphasis is on problem solving / practical solutions which are validated through practise

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Action Research

Usually associated with social survey.

Research data is collected at a single point of time.

Select a number of cases for study and thus allow for an explanation of variation.

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Cross Sectional Design

Interested in looking at relationships between variables = draw causal inferences.

Can be both qualitative and quantitative

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Cross Sectional Design

Involves time / costs.Occurs over a period of time thus

more able to draw causal inferences.

Panel Study is based on a random sample.

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Longitudinal Designs

Cohort study, a sample of people who share a certain characteristic = age, unemployment.

Problems of this approach are◦Sample attrition◦Panel conditioning affects how

respondents behave.

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Longitudinal Designs

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Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched

e.g. Qualitative and quantitative, Primary and secondary data.e.g. Interviews can be part of exploratory work –

Which method??? No easy answers.

Bear in mind your research objectives first.

Multi-method approaches

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Triangulation:

refers to the use of different methods within onestudy in order to ensure that the data are telling youwhat they think they are telling you.

e.g semi-structured interviews alongside q’ares to ensuregreater confidence in your conclusions.

Multi-method approaches

Four Criteria for Evaluation of Research

ReliabilityReplicationValidityGeneralisability (External

Validity)

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Evaluation of Research

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· Reliability: were your work to be repeated by another researcher, would the same result be produced?

· If so then your research may be judged as reliable

Interpreting Data

Close to reliability, someone may wish to replicate your research.

Thus need to spell out in detail definitions, steps you undertook in doing the research.

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Replication

Do your methods actually measure the issues you have been researching.

This relates to the integrity of your conclusions

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Validity

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Also known as external validity.

Are your findings generalisable to other contexts, e.g. otherorganisations?

Particularly applies to single case studies.Be clear about your claims - if you do not claim that it ispossible to generalise to other settings then say so.

Generalisability

Summary

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The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research. Again, you should not think of these as discrete entities. There may be a combination of some of these in the same research project.

Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.

Multi-method approaches to research mean that differentPurposes may be served and that triangulation of results is facilitated.

Summary

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You should take care to ensure that your results are valid and reliable.

You should always think carefully about the ethical issues impliedby the choice of your research strategy.

Architectural Research MethodsLinda Groat & David Wang

Interpretive –Historical Research Qualitative Research Correlational Research Experimental and Quassi Experimental

Research Simulation and Modelling Research Logical Argumantation Case Studies and Combined Strategies

How to Define Your Project

You must take time to think about your research as this will save you problems later.

When you’re thinking about your research, ask yourself the five ‘Ws’:

– What is my research?– Why do I want to do the research?– Who are my research participants?– Where am I going to do the research?– When am I going to do the research?

Sum up your research project in one sentence. Discuss your sentence with your tutor and revise if

there is any confusion.

How to Decide Upon aMethodology

The research methodology is the philosophy or general principle which guides the research.

Research methods are the tools you use to gather your

data.

Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and

experiences.

How to Decide Upon aMethodology

Examples of qualitative methodologies include action research, ethnography, feminist research and grounded theory.

Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research.

Neither qualitative nor quantitative research is better –

they are just different. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

How to Decide Upon aMethodology

Your own intuition and the words you use will give

pointers to whether qualitative or quantitative researchis more appropriate for your chosen project.

The term ‘triangulation’ is used when a combination of

qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry are used.

How to Choose YourResearch Methods

Your own intuition and the words you use will give

pointers to whether qualitative or quantitative researchis more appropriate for your chosen project.

The term ‘triangulation’ is used when a combination of

qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry are used.