Religion and social order

September 1, 2004

Many writers believe that religion sustains social order by inculcating morality

Exceptions

This is only true of most religions Most animistic and folk religions have no particular moral content

Greco-Roman gods were morally deficient – did terrible things to one another and to humans, merely for their own amusement

Hence: need for a more inclusive definition

Definition

Religion provides answers to questions of the meaning of life by positing the existence of the supernatural

The religions that contribute to social order Conceive of supernatural beings as deeply concerned about the behavior of humans toward one another

• Ex: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism

How moralistic religions contribute to social order

By promulgating prosocial norms that induce people to ‘do the right thing’

Ex: the Ten Commandmen

By providing an “opiate for the masses”

Some empirical evidenceIn a comparative study of 27 Christian-dominated societies, the more importance people placed on God, the less they approved of buying stolen goods failing to report that they had accidentally damaged a car in a parking lot smoking marijuanaSimilar findings in Islamic- and Hindu-dominated societies

(Stark, “Gods, Rituals and the Moral Order, JSSR, 2001).

But some countries are more religious than others

What explains cross-national variations in religiosity?

The concept of ‘religious economies’ A market (the demand for religion) in which different religious organizations compete for the adherence of a clientele (market share)

A key issue: the degree to which a religious economy is regulated by the state

State regulation subsidy of state churches

Example: UK: Establishment of the Church of England

• Government subsidizes the C of E; this means that tax monies by non Anglicans help to support the Church

Why state subsidies matter

Since they are not so reliant on clients, state churches

Need not be very concerned about the quality of their goods

Can afford to be aloof from their clients• Ex: the C of E in Wales

Result Seekers of religious goods are likely to go elsewhere

• Ex: Wales becomes overwhelmingly Methodist

Religious monopolies

When a given church is granted a monopoly via state regulation, the situation is exacerbated

result: general religious disaffection (demand is unmet)

Competitive religious economies

Breed ‘sects’ in addition to ‘churches’Sects

• Have emotional services; tend toward mysticism• Fundamentalist• Have local social networks

Churches• Restrain emotionality in their services • Intellectualize religious teachings• Have intense local social networks

Theoretical expectation

Other things equal, competition results in more energetic and efficient firms

To the degree that religious economies are unregulated – and therefore competitive – overall levels of religious commitment will be higher

Empirical implications

H1: The more pluralistic the religious economy (e.g. the greater the # of independent religious organizations having a significant market share) and the least regulated the greater the religious commitment (e.g. church membership/attendance)

Supportive findings from studies of

942 towns in NY State in 1855 and 1865American cities in 1890, 1906, 1926Developed Protestant countries284 municipalities of SwedenEnglish and Welsh counties in 1851Contrasts between Germans and German-AmericansCountries having religious restrictions liftedCountries with large Muslim communities198 countries of the world (in 1993)

Source: Finke, R. and R. Stark 1998. “Religious Choice and Competition.” ASR 63 (5): 761-766.

H 2

The smaller the market share of a religious organization, the more energetic it is and the higher the religious commitment of its members

Supportive evidence in studies of

Catholic dioceses in the USA

All countries where the Catholic Church is active

European Protestants

American Jewish communities

Catholics in Ireland and Northern Ireland

Catholics in Italy

Implications for Catholicism in Italy

Since the religious economy of Italy is relatively regulated and monopolistic, this theory suggests that religious commitment in Italy should be low

Some Italian data

Attendance at Sunday Mass (Ginsborg 133)19.1% of adult population in Milan15.2% in Rome and Naples7.9% in Florence 4% in Bologna

Additional explanation (as in Ginsborg) secularization or religious economies: how can we tell?

Implications for non-Catholics in Italy

If the theory of religious economies holds, then

Religious commitment among non-Catholic immigrants should be higher than among Catholic immigrants

• (although we haven’t seen any data to this effect)

Catholic Church in Italy

Catholic Church in Italy plays a role in social order as a:

Political institution

Religious institution

Political institution

Organization based on geographical units (dioceses)

Connected through network of bishops

Pope isBishop of Rome

Sovereign ruler of Vatican

Head of College of Bishops

Examples of Vatican’s direct rule

Every prayer approved in Rome

Decisions about who leads parishes (e.g., not married clergy or women priests)

Rules for annulments

Selection of bishops

Rules for birth control and abortion

Organization

Central legislative bodies:Nine congregations w/jurisdictional authority

Eleven councils with promotional authority

Bureaucratic structure

Extensive bureaucracy (Roman curia)

Occupational structure and ladder

Concept: institutional isomorphism

Finances

History: unification of Italy meant the end of papal states, and therefore loss of tax revenue and church properties.

Italy agreed, in return, to subsidize the Catholic Church. Last direct payment was in 1988.

Financial relationship between Church and State

System of voluntary tax deductions and credits

Voluntary designation of income tax payment up to 0.8%

Vatican salaries are exempt from Italian income tax

Religious organization

From Ginsborg

In relation to civil society –

Encourages democratic participation

Reifies the relationship between families and societies

Contributes to social and charitable work

Participates in debates

Conclusions

The long shadow of the Church in Rome in particular and Italy in general would seem to suggest its overwhelming importance in social and individual lives. It appears to be less than one might expect.

Although religion might seem to unambiguously contribute to social order, in numerous instances there are conflicts between Church and State