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Religion and Multiculturalism in Canada
La religion et le multiculturalisme au Canada
The Challenge of Religious Intolerance and Discrimination
Le défi posé par l’intolérance religieuse et la discrimination
Religion and Multiculturalism in Canada / La religion et le multiculturalisme au Canada
David Seljak, Department of Religious StudiesSt. Jerome’s University in the University of Waterloo
With Joanne Benham Rennick, University of Waterloo Andréa Schmidt, independent researcher, Toronto Kathryn Da Silva, University of Ottawa Paul Bramadat, University of Winnipeg
General conclusions
Religious intolerance and discrimination pose significant barriers to achieving the goals of multiculturalism
The nature of religious intolerance and discrimination in Canada is changing.
The old intolerance and discrimination have not been sufficiently addressed.
General conclusions
An emerging “closed” secularism has the potential to promote intolerance and discrimination.
Transnational issues threaten to increase religious intolerance and discrimination in Canada.
A positive, dynamic effort to promote religious freedom and tolerance will make Canada a more just, participatory and multicultural society.
Religious intolerance and discrimination: definitions Intolerance: attitudes, values and beliefs
Discrimination: actions, practices, and structures
“Structural discrimination” or “religious disadvantage”
Often they go together, but often they do not. For example, Ontario’s decision not to fund religiously based independent schools discriminates against non-Catholics but was made in the absence of malice.
Religion – race – ethnicity Difficult to isolate religion from race and
ethnicity Examples of Jews and Sikhs.
Difficult to isolate causes of intolerance and discrimination Anti-Semitism, like Islamophobia, can be a toxic
cocktail of religious chauvinism, racism, ethnic prejudice, xenophobia, and anti-immigrant bigotry.
Religious intolerance and discrimination as barriers to the goals of the Multiculturalism Program
Social justice
Inclusion and participation
Respect for cultural diversity
Sources of religious intolerance and discrimination in Canada1. Structural issues that demand long-term solutions
2. Secularization: the solution that has become part of the problem
3. Globalization and religious intolerance and discrimination in Canada
4. Cultural sources of intolerance and discrimination
Structural issues that demand long-term solutions
1. Animosity that results from the social stratification based on religion
2. Intolerance and discrimination against minority religious traditions that arises from the history of Christian privilege
3. Disrespect for the traditional spiritual practices and beliefs of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples
Secularization: the solution that has become part of the problem
4. A “closed” or ideological secularism with its assumption that all religions are essentially unenlightened, tribal, anti-egalitarian, and potentially violent. Anti-immigrant hostility is frequently fueled by feeling that “they” are not
like “us”
Earlier it mean that “they” were not Christian like “us.” Now it often means that “they” are not secular – that is enlightened, democratic, liberal, rational, etc. – like “us”
Globalization and religious intolerance and discrimination in Canada
5. Transnational ethnic, political, and religious (and ethno-politico-religious) conflicts are now played out on Canadian soil.
Cultural sources of intolerance and discrimination
6. Mistrust and hostility towards so-called New Religious Movements fostered by the anti-cult movement and the media
7. Explicit or implicit chauvinism in the theology, ethics, or practices of religious communities
8. Religious intolerance and discrimination that are part of a wider ideology of racism and ethnocentrism
Challenge of religious intolerance and discrimination to multiculturalism
“Ethnoracial diversity may adversely affect a society’s cohesiveness in two ways. When diversity results in inequality, it may undermine the sense of fairness and inclusion among individuals and groups. Racial diversity may also weaken the commonality of values, commitments and social relations among individuals and groups, thereby affecting their capacity to cooperate in the pursuit of common objectives. Each dimension is important in its own right, and they may have a combined effect on social cohesion.”Jeffrey G. Reitz and Rupa Banerjee, "Racial Inequality, Social Cohesion, and Policy Issues in Canada," in Belonging, Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada, ed. Thomas J. Courchene, Keith Banting, and Wanda Wuttune (Montreal: Institute of Research on Public Policy, 2007), 2.
In the same way, religious intolerance and discrimination may undermine the sense of justice and inclusion of significant portions of the population, weaken solidarity and mutual respect, and ultimately erode social cohesion.
International concern inspires a number of studies United Kingdom: Paul Weller, Alice Feldman, and Kingsley
Purdam, "Religious Discrimination in England and Wales, Home Office Research Study 220," Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate (2001).
Australia: Gary Bouma Desmond Cahill, Hass Dellal and Michael Leahy, "Religion Cultural Diversity and Safeguarding Australia," ed. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2004).
European Union: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, "Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia," ed. EUMC (EUMC, 2006).
Putting religion back on the agenda
No policy or program aimed at making Canada a more participatory, inclusive, democratic, just and culturally diverse society can afford to ignore religious intolerance and discrimination.
Some background on religion in Canada
Aboriginal peoples had their own spiritual traditions
French attempted to “transplant Christendom,” that is, recreate in New France the condition of “establishment” in France.
Establishment
Church and State are equally Christian
Church and State cooperate in creating the framework for society, each acting in its sphere of competence
State usually enforces a religious monopoly on behalf of the Church
Theology usually justifies the established order
Religion and culture are fused together
The British project of establishment
After 1763, the British attempted to establish the Church of England in British North America.
By 1854, this project is abandoned, but not the idea of a Christian Canada
The creation of a “plural establishment.”
The Canadian project: plural establishment Official recognition of “non-denominational” Christianity
of the Protestant majority with concessions to large Roman Catholic population
Cooperation with large, mainline, “respectable” denominations, especially Anglicans, Presbyterians and the United Church of Canada
Maintenance of a “social establishment”; Canadian culture and values are strongly formed by Christianity
We are not the United States
When you are arrested, the police will not read you your Miranda rights.
There is no separation of Church and State in Canada.
Historical consequences
Education, health care, social services, immigrant integration, services to aboriginal peoples (including the residential school disaster) are shared Church/State intiatives.
To be a good Canadian is to be a good Christian. Prohibition and control of alcohol Legislation on sexual morality, marriage, and abortion Lord’s Day Act (1905-1985)
To be a good Canadian, one had to be a good Christian In 1913, the Assistant Superintendent of the Baptist
Home Mission Board of Ontario and Quebec, C.J. Cameron wrote:
We must endeavor to assimilate the foreigner. …If the Canadian civilization fails to assimilate the great mass of foreigners admitted to our country the result will be destruction to the ideals of a free and nominally Christian nation, which will be supplanted by a lower order of habits, customs and institutions. …there is but one all sufficient method by which this goal is reached: we shall Canadianize the foreigner by Christianizing him.
Consequences
Dismissal and suppression of aboriginal spiritualities
Anti-Catholicism
Intolerance towards minority Christian groups
Widespread anti-Semitism
Religious intolerance added to bigotry towards members of visible minority groups Sikhs Hindus Buddhists Muslims Chinese
Solution: secularization
Autonomy and neutrality of the state in the face of religion For example legislation on same-sex unions
Autonomy of the marketplace The Lord’s Day Act was first Charter issue under Section 2.
State takes over education, healthcare, social services Gradually outside of Quebec Dramatically inside of Quebec: la Révolution tranquille
Solution: secularization
Social disestablishment
Cultural values formed by non-Christian sources
Widespread cultural adoption of American-style separation of Church and State
Religious diversity seen as a public good and tolerance or pluralism is embraced as a element of multiculturalism.
Some caveats re. secularization
Decline of religious mentalities on individual level did not happen.
Religion is privatized, de-institutionalized, dispersed, and subjectivated.
The process is by no means complete. Canada is not a secular society but a secularizing society and, more precisely, a de-Christianizing society.
Major religious denominations, Canada, 19911 and 2001
2001 1991
Number % Number %
Percentage change 1991-2001
Roman Catholic 12,793,125 43.2 12,203,625 45.2 4.8
Protestant 8,654,845 29.2 9,427,675 34.9 -8.2
Christian Orthodox 479,620 1.6 387,395 1.4 23.8
Christian, not included elsewhere2
780,450 2.6 353,040 1.3 121.1
Muslim 579,640 2.0 253,265 0.9 128.9
Jewish 329,995 1.1 318,185 1.2 3.7
Buddhist 300,345 1.0 163,415 0.6 83.8
Hindu 297,200 1.0 157,015 0.6 89.3
Sikh 278,415 0.9 147,440 0.5 88.8
No religion 4,796,325 16.2 3,333,245 12.3 43.9
1. For comparability purposes, 1991 data are presented according to 2001 boundaries.
2. Includes persons who report "Christian", as well as those who report "Apostolic", "Born-again Christian" and "Evangelical".
What stayed the same
Canada still predominantly Christian, 76.6%.
70% are either Roman Catholic (largest denomination) or Protestant.
Jews and Roman Catholics experienced moderate growth (about 4-5%).
http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/rel/canada.cfm#overview
What changed since 1991
Number of “no religion,” grew from 12.3% to 16.2% We have no idea what this means because this figure includes
atheists, agnostics, many Chinese Canadians, and young people who may return to religious practice later.
Increase in Muslim (128.9%), Hindu (89.3), Buddhist (83.8) and Sikh communities (88.8) Still altogether, they make up only 6.3% of the population
Increased in non-mainline Christian population (121%).
Protestant decline 1991-2001
Decline in mainline Protestant denominations (-8%)
Most dramatic for Presbyterians (-35.6%)
Pentecostals dropped 15% to about 369,500
The multi-faith future: why we can expect
more religious diversity in Canada “Based on the proposed projection scenarios, persons who are
members of non Christian denominations should represent between 9.2% and 11.2% of the Canadian population in 2017, or between 3,049,000 and 4,107,000 people.”
Compare to 2001 when 6.3% of the population (1,922,000 people) identified themselves as Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, Sikh or other non-Christian religions.
Compare to 1991 when approximately 4% of the population did the same.
Bélanger and Malenfant, "Population Projections of Visible Minority Groups, Canada, Provinces and Regions, 2001-2017," 19. http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/91-541-XIE/91-541-XIE2005001.pdf . Emphasis in the original.
Religious Composition of Immigrant Cohorts, 1961-2001 (%)
Number of immigrants
before 1961 - 1.76 million*
1961‑1970 - 927 thousand
1971‑1980 - 1.11 million 1981‑1990 - 1.15 million 1991‑2001 - 1.83 million
Potential for growth of religious intolerance and discrimination Statistics Canada has recently projected
growth in the populations most likely to experience discrimination.
Increased immigration will bring greater potential for increase of religious intolerance and discrimination rooted in transnational issues.
Potential for growth of religious intolerance and discrimination Growth in the population of non-Christian Canadians will
be tied mostly to increased immigration.
These groups will be concentrated in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver
Their concentration will likely mean new demands for structural change and “accommodation” For example, in March 2007, the Toronto Star reported a controversy
over the Hindu practice of dispersing cremated human remains in moving water, that is to say, rivers and lakes in the Mississauga area.
Potential for growth of religious intolerance and discrimination The Census data show a marked increase in the number of
Canadians adopting non-mainstream religious identities, such as Wicca and other New Religious Movements.
The only Christian denominations showing signs of growth are evangelical Protestants, whose inclination is to express their form of Christianity in public.
Even mainline Christian churches may become more conservative and more like their evangelical counterparts.
These groups may also demand greater accommodation and participation, challenging other Canadians to change the way we interact in the public sphere.
Religious IntoleranceWhat polls and surveys say
Canadians have a generally positive view of most religious groups
However, a significant minority are suspicious of Muslims and Jews
In 1991, an Angus Reid poll found that Sikhs were the group with which Canadians felt least comfortable
Only 13% of EDS respondents identified religion as the source of perceived discrimination
Percentage who
identified religion as the
source of perceived
discrimination
Total non-Aboriginal population aged 15 and older (Limit of EDS)
Total non-Aboriginal population aged 15 and older times percentage
Total non-Aboriginal population aged 15 and older
13% 22,445,490 402,470
Male 11% 10,947,760 188,190
Female 16% 11,497,730 214,270
Visible minority population 10% 2,999,850 99,450
Male 10% 1,443,120 50,910
Female 9% 1,556,730 48,550
Table 4. Religion as Source of Discrimination from Respondents who Perceived Discrimination, Ethnic Diversity Survey, 2003
The population that was taken into account by the EDS consisted of Canadians over 15 years of age who were not aboriginals.
However, 43% of reported hate crimes have a religious motivation (vs. Race 57%)
Motivation Number % of total
Total Religion 398 43
Jewish 229 25
Islam (Muslim) 102 11
Religion unknown 45 5
Other religion 35 4
Catholic 12 1
No religion 0 0
Table 5. Hate crime incidents by motivation in 12 major police forces in Canada. Pilot study project by Statistics Canada 2002
Socio-economic impact of religious intolerance Jewish Canadian families, who are victims of religious
intolerance and discrimination, on average are wealthier and better educated than the average Canadian family
Morton Weinfeld points out that, in 1991, about 22% of Jews lived in households with an income over $100,000, three times the rate for other Canadians.
See also N. Tomes, "Religion and Rate Returns to Human Capital: Evidence from Canada," Canadian Journal of Economics 16 (1983), R. Meng and J. Sentance, "Religion and the Determination of Earnings: Further Results," The Canadian Journal of Economics 17, no. 3 (1984).
Socio-economic impact of religious intolerance Muslim Canadian families, who also suffer
significant levels of religious intolerance and discrimination, have among the lowest individual income levels among all Canadians.
This is odd because Muslim Canadians as a group have the second highest educational attainment in the country (after Jewish Canadians) and some 10% above the Canadian average.
Appendix D, Chart 3: Individual Income Levels and Religious Identity, Adults, 21+ years old, Canada, 2001 %
Graph provided by Dr. P. Beyer, University of Ottawa and used with permission.
Appendix D, Chart 6: Comparative Income Level and Educational Attainment according to Religious Identity
Non-Immigrant 21-30 year-olds, Selected Ethnic Identities*, Canada, 2001 (%)
Source: Statistics Canada, 2004.
Graph provided by Dr. P. Beyer, University of Ottawa and used with permission.
Other arenas of discrimination and intolerance Workplace issues: tolerance and
accommodation
Education: structures, practices and culture
Women and religious intolerance and discrimination
Other arenas of discrimination and intolerance Local politics, accommodation and conflict
Media coverage and bias
Religious intolerance on the Internet
Healthcare: the extent and limits of tolerance
Symbolic belonging: what – and who – is Canadian? Religious holiday accommodation:
practical and symbolic importance
The battle over haberdashery (turbans, kirpans, hijabs, etc.)
The importance of symbols as markers of boundaries, identity and solidarity
Protection of religious freedom and diversity today Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982)
Section 2Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: a) freedom of conscience and religion; b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the
press and other media of communication; c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and d) freedom of association.
Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1988)
Canadian Human Rights Act (1985) – along with the myriad provincial human rights codes
Protection of religious freedom and diversity today Supreme Court decisions
R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd., [1985] established principles of “neutrality” of the state and law.
Ont. Human Rights Comm. v. Simpsons-Sears, [1985] established obligation of “reasonable accommodation” for employer.
Protection of religious freedom and diversity today Non-discrimination and reasonable
accommodation in the workplace
Employment Equity Act (1995)
Canada Labour Code (R.S., 1985, c. L-2)
Foundational principles
State must not favour any one religion
Practices cannot discriminate indirectly
Individuals must be accommodated
However, religious freedom in not unlimited
Structural issues not yet addressed by legislative, judicial and administrative changes
What is religion? What is religious freedom?
Case of traditional aboriginal spirituality
The invisibility of Chinese religion
Some ideas on addressing religious intolerance and discrimination
I. Commit to making the issue a priority
II. Allow religious diversity to inspire us to question the structures of Canadian society
III. Promote education and dialogue
I. Making addressing intolerance and discrimination a priority1. Making religious intolerance and discrimination a
priority by promoting religious rights and freedoms and integrating them more fully into all initiatives to promote multiculturalism.
In a study of 546 research projects sponsored by the Multiculturalism Program from 2000-2004, only 19 related to religion in any significant fashion. Six of these dealt with the after-effects of 9/11.
2. Conducting more extensive study on the economic disadvantages faced by Muslim Canadians.
II. Questioning structures
3. Addressing the issue of Christian privilege more thoroughly, both on the practical and structural levels.
4. Adopting an open secularism (la laïcité ouverte) that accepts the participation of religious communities in public debates.
5. Recognizing traditional Aboriginal spirituality in a way that would allow Aboriginal peoples to control more aspects of their own lives and communities.
III. Public education at all levels
6. Promoting unbiased education about religion for all students, and also for policy-makers, media representatives and other stake-holders in public debates.
7. Sponsoring interfaith dialogue and cooperation, capitalizing on existing ecumenical and interfaith movements.