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EVOLUTIONARY EPISTEMOLOGY,LANGUAGE AND CULTUREedited by NATHALIE GONTIERVrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
JEAN PAUL VAN BENDEGEMVrije Universiteit Brussel, BelgiumandDIEDERIK AERTSVrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
2006 Sprn!"r
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Table of Contents
Pr"#a$" %& '(" "d')r* +A$n)-."d!"/"n'* ++Introduction to evolutionary epistemology, language and culture Na'(a." G)n'"rPART 1 E).3')nar& "p*'"/).)!&Evolutionary epistemology: The non-adaptationist approach 445ran M1 73"''*"Lie cats and dogs: !adical constructivism andevolutionary epistemology 89A."+and"r R"!."rThe biological boundary conditions "or our classical physical#orld vie# 69
O.a# D"''r$(Is the real #orld something more than the #orld o" our e$perience%!elations bet#een &eo-'ar#inism, transcendental philosophy andcognitive sciences :;Adranna 7)naUniversal 'ar#inism and process essentialism 0:D"r" T3rn"rPART 21 E).3')nar& "p*'"/).)!& and .an!3a!"'ar#inism, traditional linguistics and the ne# (alaeolithic)ontinuity Theory o" language evolution 2Mar) A.n"The e$tended mind model o" the origin o" language and culture 8:R)%"r' K1 L)!an*rom changes in the #orld to changes in the #ords 6:
J"an OSO?OVY P2> OSO?OVY @C> OSO?OVY T> OSOSVNL8
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Bar' d" B)"r/imulating the synta$ and semantics o" linguisticconstructions about time 809
J)a$(/ D" B"3."Evolutionary game-theoretic semantics and its "oundational status 82:A('
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Cognition, Evolution, and Sociality 1
Eugenia Ramirez-Goicoechea
Dpt. Social Anthropology
Universia !acional e Eucaci"n a Distancia# U!ED.eramirez$%so%.une.es
Eugenia Ramirez-Goicoechea
Dpt. Social Anthropology. U!ED
Sena el Rey &
2'()( *ari. S+A,!
Astracthe aim o% this paper is to uil up a theoretical %rame/or0 %or a more comprehensive unerstaning o% humancognition as an evolutionary an evelopmentally comple process constitute through social relations.
Sociality an cognition are part an parcel o% ecoming a human an a person. han0s to Dynamic Systems
heories# a non-linear# non-ualistic nor eterministic approach is ta0en %or the unerstaning o% theheterochronic mutually speci%ie processes encountere in evolutionary an evelopmentally systems. ,n light o% neurophysiological evience# emoiment theory an situate cognition# !eoar/inist accounts o% cognition areiscusse an revie/e. Special attention is given to ialogic relations an socialisation in ontogeny# y /hich0no/lege is re-create an emoie in ne/ generations. ast ut not least# some consierations are mae /ith
respect to the eternalisation an oectivisation o% 0no/lege as recursive meiators4ampli%iers %or %urther cognitive evolution that allo/s# in turn# %or more social compleity.
5ey /ors6 7ognition# Evo-Devo# Sociality# Dynamic Systems heories# 7ompleity
1 Research /or0 /as one uring 1889-188& an 2((2-2(() in the Social an +olitical Sciences Dpt.#Dpt. o% Social Anthropology an +emro0e 7ollege# University o% 7amrige :U5;# than0s to %inancialsupport %rom the Universia !acional e Eucaci"n a Distancia :*ari; an the Spanish *inistry o% Eucation :Direcci"n General e ,nvestigaci"n 7ienta/thorn an +ro%. 7. >umphrey %or their 0inness ancontinuous support uring my stay in 7amrige. , am also grate%ul to !athalie Gonthier :7entre %or the
ogic an +hilosophy o% Science# ?ree University o% =russels# @U=; %or organising a 7on%erence onEvolutionary Epistemology# anguage an 7ulture :=russels# 2((); /here , ha the opportunity to get intouch an echange ieas /ith colleagues coming %rom other %iels an isciplines.
)
mailto:eramirez@fsof.uned.esmailto:eramirez@fsof.uned.es
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1. Introduction
!eoar/inist theories o not allo/ %or a comprehensive evolutionary theory o%
cognition. Socioiology# Evolutionary +sichology# Gene-7ulture coevolution#
+opulation genetics or *emetics# all o% them are limite y their unerlying paraigms6
1. 7ognitivism# as the preceence given to cognition over other mental activity6 2.
,enti%ication o% cognition /ith in%ormation an algorithmic computation 3. Bectivistrealism ). Rationalism an methoological iniviualism 9. ,naility to reconcile
sociality an culture /ith cognition# an C. Stress on genetic inheritance# in etriment o
epigenesis# ontogeny an evelopment.
,n this paper# , /ill try not only to uestion# some o% !eoar/inism %avourite
tennets# ut also inten to contriute to the Evolutionary Epistemology eate regaring
the importance o% the sociocultural as uilt an live in human phylogeny an ontogeny
an its environments.
?rom an epistemological perspective# my /or0 relies heavily on Dynamic
Systems heories 6 Autopoiesis an sel%-organisation theories# compleity# criticality#
an chaos theory 2. hese theories %avour a non ualistic an non eterministic
epistemology# paying attention to the emergent properties o% systems an theirreversiility o% some processes.
, have %oun these approaches particularly relevant /hen trying to unerstan
mutually constitute processes as those /e encounter /hen stuying evolution an
cognition. *any evolutionary :as /ell as evelopmental; processes are structurally
couple# sharing a co-ontogeny, a history o% mutual in%luences an interactions# in
/hich the-many-to-many relations among them :Sh/eer =ourne# 18'); allo/ %or
variaility in attractors :+rigogine# 18'(6 28; in the evolutionary ynamics :i.e.
piggybacking 3; /ithin i%%erent rythms an time :heterochrony# c%.Goul 18&&;). !on-
linearity means that cause-e%%ect lin0s cannot e trace nor preicte :helen 18'8;
ecause o% the ynamicity o% the system an the multiple traectories o% its parts among
i%%erent attractors. @ariales may e epenent or inepenent in respect to scale an
level o% compleity :Goo/in 188);. Sensitivity to original conitions :Forenz 18C3;
may e necessary ut not su%%icient6 many evolutionary phenomena can e consiere
as emergencies o% sel%-organise systems that# at some critical point# reorganise
themselves to/ars viaility an sustainaility :Gnti 2((3; in relation to sel%-
etermine environments.
*y approach is oth evolutionary an evelopmental. As +. Gri%%iths puts it
:2(();# evelopment a%%ects evolution# /hile changing over the course o% evolutionary
%orces. ,n this , ahere to the Evo-Devo programme %or 7ongnitive +sychology.
As it /ill e clear# , claim the importance o% sociocultural %actors in cognition.
!ot that the other /ay roun is not true :c%. in%ra;# ut cognitivist 7ognitive Stuies2 *y main re%erences on autopoiesis are *aturana @arela# 18'( *orin# 18&& =ateson# 18&2 uhman
:1889;. ?or Dynamic Systems theories# , rely on +rigogine :18'(; !icolis +rigogine# 18'8;# e/in:1882;# *aore ?reeman :18'&; =a0 :188C;# 5au%%man :1883# 1889;# Gellman :1889; an 7ramer :1883;.3 Piggybacking happens /hen an evolutionary process ta0es avantage o% the %orce# rive an spee o% another that someho/ opens the /ay %or the other to %ollo/ or ust helps ma0e the /ay uic0er aneasier.) 7arneiro :F7arneiro# 18&3;# /hen iscussing Ste/arHs an IhiteHs multi-linear approach to cultural
evolution# use the metaphor o% culture as a icycle /ith its set o% gears# some short# some long# someuic0# some slo/. he set moves as a /hole ut its parts have i%%erent rhythms6 some processes mayspee up others y means o% catalysis# or the opposite# slo/ them o/n. ,t is clear that# the stratigraphic
moel o% time :the geological level uner the iological-organic one# then the psychological# then thesociocultural; oes help unerstaning compleity in homini evolution :c%. Sinha 188C Shore# 188C;.
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ten to %orget the %irst. , tal0 aout the sociocultural, as a uali%ying %eature. his is
ecause , o not /ant to rei%y culture6 /hat it is important is the ynamics# the
relational. =esies# there is no /ay %or humans to e social /ithout eing cultural an
viceversa. , unerstan this concept as the comple# non-linear process y /hich
human eings create# reorganise# escrie an reescrie# personally an collectively#
their conitions o% eistence :incluing meaning;. his process emerges %rom theynamics o% an evolutionary history o% emoie an relational an engagional
capacities rought %orth in the li%e cycle y a sociocultural environment.
Another milestone in this paper is a non-monaic conception o% the iniviual. he
iniviual oes not pre-eist his4her conitions o% eistence# as a is-emoie astraction.
Society is not an aggregate o% iniviuals it is a gloality that emerges %rom the comple
relations an ynamics /ithin its parts;.
hat is /hy /e support the concept o% person as a conscious intentional agent that
incorporates a lige process in continuous evelopment# in a local an historical contet9
>uman eings as persons can e thought o% as co-ontogenetic creatures that organise their
lives an are mutually constitute /ith an y other persons /ith /hom they relate in
multiple /ays an roles. he iniviual is alreay socialise an share memership /ithcategorial an interactional groups# even at the demographic level.
2. Modularity, Domain Specificity, Cross-modality
?or !eoar/inist accounts# i.e. Evolutionary +sychology :E+;# homini
cognition evolve to aapt to the living conitions o% +lio-+leistocene hunter-gatherers
:=ar0o/# 7osmies# an ooy 1882 *ithen 188C;C. hese aaptations consiste o%
genetically incorporate cognitive evices# moules# an unpreicte conseuence o%
?oorHs moularity o% peripheral perceptual evices. :c%. ?oor 18'3 also 7homs0y
189&;. !o general intelligence as in +iagetHs psychology &. Each moule is omain-
speci%ic in that its encapsulates a particular omain in the /orl# in the /ay o% 5antian
synthetic apriories# giving structure to the in%ormation that comes %rom i%%erent sensory
evices y means o%speci%ic algorithmic computations '. hese moules evolve in their
speci%icity as %ine-tune capacities %or aapting to speci%ic challenges o% the
environment. Relying on the Iestern mecano4lego paraigm :Shore 188C611C-139;#
moules are pieces o% an articulate structure /ith no centrality an no neighouring
interepenence o% elements6 the /hole is the sum o% its parts.
Evolutionary psicologists elieve that all humans share a universal intuitive
psychology that /oul e evo0e :=oyer 188); uner particular conitions8. here is
not prolem accepting that some cognitive ailities may e universal in homo/femina
sapiens sapiens. =ut# as %or all other universals# they can only eist in their local an
historical incarnations. *isunerstaning /hat may e universal /ith genes# cannot
9 7%. ,ngol 188( an 1881 7arrithers 18'9 Sh/eer 18') oren 188' Golschmit 1883 Roertson188C.C >o/ to maintain the continuity o% this +sychology in sociocultural an ecological contets as i%%erentas in the !eolithic an hierarchical systems is another matter. 7%. =oy an Richerson 18'3 =oy 2((1.& ,t is not clear /hy general capacities shoul to e less %unctional than speci%ic ones. 7%. 5armilo%%-
Smith# 1882.' *oules or omain-speci%ic mental capacities have een rename as scope-regulated abilities :c%.7osmies# an ooy 2(((;.8 Accepting some 0in o% universal cognitive evices %or particular sets o% phenomena is not a prolem.
his oes not entail ignoring the cultural iversity in the ounaries# semantics# practices an valuesattriute to these y /hich they are uilt up ecologically an cognitively. 7%. Descola an +alsson 188C>viing 188C.
C
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stan up to inspection anymore. ?uertermore# iversity an generality can e %oun at
any empirical level6 it epens on scale# perspective an scope1(.
!ooy enies that# at some level o% system compleity# speci%icity can e
a0no/lege 11. =ut instea o% an innate given# speci%icity can e thought as the result
o% specialisation# the outcome o% either punctual or ynamic :cycle; attractors that# %or
some tas0s4eperiences# uner certain chronotopic conitions# ecome evices %or centrality# coherence# :isorere; orer an irectiveness.
+. Gri%%iths :2((); istinguishes et/een i%%erent 0ins o% mules6evelopmental#
%unctional a virtual. All o% them mean i%%erent %or Evolutionary +sychologists an
!europsychoogists. *ental moules o not have to correspon necesarilly /ith
neuro%unctional moules. Ihat may appear as a speci%ic moule may e only an aspect
o% the per%ormance o% a %unctional neural system. =esies# it is possile that i%%erent
parts o% the rain may elong to the same %unctional moule that# not/ithstaning# is
the outcome o% i%%erent evelopmental moules. *oules can e semi-ecomposse as
susystems /ithin a hierarchical superior system /ith /hich it relates as it oes /ith
other susystems# eing that their inner ynamics is the principal motor o% evelopment.
=rain ynamics in terms o% istriution is very comple. Some corte areas may e poly-moal# elaorating in%ormation %rom various or i%%erent sensory-perceptual
evices. 7ognitive activity may epen also on multisensoriality as in holistic
eperiences :as in flow# c%. 7si0szentmihalyi 18&9; an con%lation :Johnson# 7. 188&;12. ,n evolution# as in evelopment an in rain reorganisation a%ter neurological
amage# some parts increase their connectivity %or multiple tas0s. he superior coliculus
an parietal corte sho/ poly-moality. ,n congenitally ea% chilren# parietal an
temporal areas normally engage in speech elaoration an comprehension are invae
uring evelopment y visual nerves responsive to peripheral vision :!eville 1881;.
=lin people# olphins an ats process soun an eco-location in the same rain area
/here seeing people elaorate spatial in%ormation# /ith epths# istances an shapes#
almost li0e in 3D. 5inesic an haptic eperience in lin people K as in =raille reaing -
are also mainly processe in the visual corte area :*aturana an @arela 1882;.
/o processes that are live eperientially together may share some common
neural paths. Short-sighte people hear etter /ith their glasses on an people hear
etter /hen they can see peopleHs %aces :5uhl an *eltzo%% 18') 5hul# 18'9; or their
lips moving :not ecause they 0no/ lip reaingL;# in /hat has een calle the McGurk
effect :*cGur0 an *acDonal 18&C;.
7ross-moality is another 0in o% mental property. ,t coul e thought in terms o%
the non vertical relations et/een omains in /hich attractors in one omain capacity
ecome the same %or another one. 7rossmoality has to o /ith 0no/lege that is
applie %rom one moule to another# ecause a 0in o% lin0 has een estalishe et/een omains# as in metaphor an conceptual lening.
1( ,n cognition# universals have to o also /ith esign an taskonomy :Dougherty an 5eller 18'2; , asthe limite possile /ays o% 0no/legeale practice ue to evolve4evelope4learne capacities#technologies# cultural a%%orances an physical constraints. 7%. also Dennet 188'6 =ates an Ellman 1883Muinn 1881. J. +iaget :18&(; use to say that N/hat is inevitale shoul not necessarily e innateO.
echnological convergence in cultural evolution is aout this. as0onomy may have to o also /itheaptations.11 o give an eample# referential open /ors :names# vers# aectives; are processe y i%%erent neuralsystems than closed ones :connectives# pronouns# eterminants# avers; :!eville# 1881;# inepenentlyo% %urther recursiveness an4or co-ontogeny12 R. lins :2((1;# stuying consciousness# spea0s o% mental states in /hich /aves o% the same
%reuency crisscross many parts o% the rain# integrating i%%erent neurological structures. he integrationo% i%%erent rain parts through connectivity o% neural systems is an outcome o% evolutionary process :c%.Ramirez-Goicoechea 2(();.
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he role o% metaphor has al/ays een ear to social anthropologists. @ico alreay
mentione that our capacity %or specialisation is limite :?ernanez 1881; ut /e have
enormous possiilities %or comining ol things in ne/ contets. 7ross-moality is one
o% the main sources o% creativity an innovation. ,n %act# cross-moality is at the ase o%
symolisation an implies an increase in the connectivity o% neural systems an systems
o% systems. ,n evolutionary terms# it may have meant a step %urther in humansapientization13. A SD or seuential learning evice :=runer 18'1; evolve %or motor
control in ipealism an manipulation may have een eaptate %or communication
:ieerman 2((2 Green%iel 1881; ecause o% structural esign aeuacy /ith the ne/
capacities. Social intelligence :Jolly 18&2 >umphrey 18&C Ihiten an =yrne 18'';
may have een eaptate %or language :Aiello an Dunar 1883; in that the neural
connectivity it entails may e viale enough %or language reuirements. 7ross-moality
is not automatic an epens on types an possiilities o% eperience# incluing cultural
eperience. 7ultural moels may give pre%erence to some metaphors over others in
accorance /ith sensorioperceptual eperience# institutionalise meanings :=runer
188C Muinn 1881; an eco-ieographic relations o% societies1) .
Evolutionary stages may e seen as i%%erent moments o% %unctional specialisationo% some neural structures together /ith the openness that cross-moality o%%ers %or
creativity an innovation. *any evolutionary outcomes epen on the local an
historical reorganisation o% capacities# /here culture is symiotically emee /ith
iology in the irection in /hich cognitive ailities an action lea. >ence# it seems
etter to tal0 o% a soft mental architecture o% the rain /here there is speci%icity /ithin
%leiility as /ell as crossmoality.
3. Structure In-te-Ma!ing" te #rain as a self-organised dynamic system
Bur rain# an especially our neocorte# is a comple sel%-organise autopoietic
system :7hangeu 18'C Eri 18'' aughlin et al. 188(;.
Although neural structures vary in %leiility %or re-organisation19# constraints are
not rules an cortical neural reorganisation continues in i%%erent egrees uring li%etime
:Eelman 1882 Drey%us 18&8 5ostovic 188(;. he phenotype epens on the comple
relationship et/een evolutionary an evelopmental systems an the local an
historical reorganizations o% capacities. he i%%iculty /hen stuying the rain is
precisely that its essence relies on its ynamics. Ie cannot euce ehaviour %rom the
map :Ste/art an 7ohen 188&6 191;. he rain is the outcome o% a phyletic history o% a
potential mae actual.he human rain corte is the thic0est o% all animal corte
:Dunar 1882;. 7ortical neurons start to evelop %rom the 1(th /ee0 o% gestation. hey
are all that there /ill e aroun the 1'th /ee0. At that point# epigenesis starts. !eurons
emigrate to i%%erent places %ollo/ing structural an regulatory genes in relation /ithchemical echanges o% attraction an repulsion /ith neighouring cells :Eelman
18'';. Aroun the thir month an once neurons have locate# enrites an aons start
to gro/ an sprea in the %oetus rain :Scheiel 1881;. Synapto-genesis# neural
connectiveness in synapses# alreay starts e%ore irth# as sho/n y EEG eperiments.
!evertheless# most o% synapsis as /ell as neural eath ecause o% inactivity happen a%ter
13 S. *ithen :188C; argues that only /hen evolve capacities are eaptate %or other omains# such as the
technical omain# o /e see the rapi emergence o% our %ull cognitive ailities.1) otemism an animism may e eplaine as a speci%ic case o% crossmoality in the classi%icatorysystem the %irst attracting social categories uner the gravitational %orce o% natural categories# the secon eing the other /ay roun.
19 !eural connections cannot e any 0in o% thing6 the esign# /hat neurons are involve# ho/ they %iretogether# /hat net/or0s ecome a net/or0 are all implicate :+in0er 2((26'3;. 7%. Recanzone 2(((# cit.in +in0er 2((2683 a/rence !ohria 2((2.
'
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irth :5elman Artererry 188'62&;. *ental evelopment is cross-cultural in the
human species :5onner 1881 Rogo%% an *orelli#18'8;. *any o% +iagetHs
evelopmental stages have corresponence in myelinisation an neurological change
:Gison 188C;.
=et/een 2 an C months o% age# synapto-genesis multiplies y ten than0s to the
pro%usion o% enrites. At this time# the numer o% sinapsis oules that o% an ault.Aroun 12 months o% age# enrites an connections that have not een stimulate an
rein%orce start to isappear an there is even neural eath :>uttenlocher 188) ;. Stuies
in visual an motor eperience con%irm this :5ellman an Artererry 188' Iiesel an
>uerl 18C3# cit. in !eville 1881;.
he %rontal loe is the area that has gro/n most in homini evolution# representing
29P o% the human rain instea o% the 3P it represents in cats. ?rontal an pre%rontal
corte an their sucortical an limic connections are the areas most relate to
eecutive# ecision an motivate actions. ,ts maturation in terms o% synapto-genesis#
neural eath# myelinisation an the presence o% opamine is later than other rain areas
an coincies /ith the cognitive an ehavioural evelopment o% in%ants et/een C an
12 months. he myelinization o% seconary cortical areas is contemporaneous /ithcross-moal capacities an the elaoration o% multi-sensory stimuli an the aility to
elaorate more comple totalities. ?urther myelinization o% associative cortical areas#
such as in the %rontal loe# correspons /ith the aility to manipulate various concepts
at the same time an to organize them hierarchically an synthetically. 7onceptual
lening# integration o% space an time# action an conseuence# coincie /ith the
neurological evelopment o% this area an have een ethnographically contraste in
i%%erent cultural settings :Ierner18'2 Dasen an >eron 18'1;. Another ig
neurological change ta0es place aroun the age o% & :Super 1881;# precisely /hen most
societies start treating the chil as a moral agent /ith responsiility %or his4her oings
aroun this age. !eural ynamics continue throughout li%e# although main structural
net/or0 uiling in the rain K connectivity an structuring o% corte - %inishes in
aolescence /hen the myelinisation o% all nerve %ires is complete :?uster 18'8
Gison 1881;# an it coincies /ith seual maturity1C.
*oularity an omain speci%icity elieve in an inherite %unctional geography o%
mental processes. 7ommunication ailities seem to e lateralise in irs an mammals#
incluing primates :>e/es 188C 7orallis 2((2; the same %or %acial recognition
:!icholls et al. 1888; /ith even evolutionary implications :@allortigara 1888;.
e%t hemisphere is igger than the right hemisphere in primates# although oth
sho/ neurological reunancy at irth. Severe impairment may even concentrate mental
ailities in only one hemisphere :c%. =attro 2(((;.
he min4emotion ualism has relie on a rain geometry as /ell6 le%t rainhemisphere %or cognition an language# right rain sie %or emotion :7acioppo an
+etty 18'1 uc0er 18'1;. ,t is true that there is some 0in o% locality %or the epression
an a/areness o% emotions that may e evolutionarily more ancient than other mental
localisations. !evertheless# le%t hemispheric specialisation %or language starts aroun
the %irst year :Scheiel 1881; so oes emotional corte structuring in the right
hemisphere :Davison 18');.
,n %act# oth hemispheres are emee in multiple mental processes :Ross an
*esulam 18&8;. *ost ailities are comple enough to e istriute in oth sies. Sight
alone implies the intervention o% more than 3( i%%erent rain areas :5ellman
Artenerry 188'6 2(9#2(8;. =rain areas may also e share at some point %or i%%erent
1C *ost societies ritualise this stage y means o% i%%erent %orms o% symolic practices that# nevertheless
aopt the %orm o% the /ell-0no/n rites de passage.
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mental activities :7alvin 188&;. here is evience o% the le%t hemisphere moulating
neurological right sie activity as /ell as organising some social mani%estations o% the
emotional sphere. Rea%%erent neurological connections o% perceptual areas in the corte
are connecte oth to the pre%rontal evaluative corte an to the limic system :eDou
188' +ans0sepp 1882;# /hich is a trait o% sapientization :Reyna 2((2;. *any cognitive
structures in the corte are triggere y the limic system# /hich# in turn# is%unamental %or memory# mental processing :c%. air et al. 18'2; an ecision-ma0ing
:Damasio 188);.
$. % neurosocial mind
he social an the 0no/ing are part an parcel in human evolution# a heterocronic
co-ontogeny# /ith i%%ering rythmes an mutual attractivity6 one can pull the other at
one time# in some aspects# the other /ay aroun the net time or %or other matters.hey
may also e non homologically interchangeale in terms o% system4environment
relations :Ram
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historical-political relationships o% the iniviual in his4her li%e cycle 1&. he capacities
o% organisms result %rom the emergent properties o% evelopmental systems :Byama
18'9 1882; /hen engaging in on-going processes /ith the environment# a scenario
that# %or humans# is al/ays social1'.
.&. 'ocialisation# $ecoming Human
his eperience is shape in a particular4universal sociocultural milieu to /hichthe chil is engage. >uman ontogeny can e thought o% as socialise iology# capture
y a cultural process :Sinha 188C; it is the locus an tempo /here iology an culture
meet each other in the iniviual :Gooy 1889 Green%iel 2((2;. ,n our species# there
is not a human nature prior to a sociocultural conition sapiens sapiens is not a given6
there is not a natural man4/oman on top o% /hich culture is place li0e a hat. Ie
shoul see homo sapiens sapiens an humanity as the result o% a socioiological process
instea o% vie/ing cultural evolution as starting %rom a terminal point o% iological
evolution.
>uman ontogeny sho/s some particularities. Animals /ith high ence%alisation also
have a long chilhoo an youth# uring /hich synapsis structure comes to e than0s to
social interaction an play. All primates sho/ an elongate ontogeny :in terms o% seualan cognitive maturity as speci%ie y myelinisation;. +arental investment in terms o%
nurture# care an socialisation is also ig. his situation correspons to long-li%e
species# /ith ig rains# %e/ o%%spring an less %reuent in%ant mortality. +rimates have
a long ontogeny# perio increase continuously throughout homini evolution :?oley
188C;.
>umanity is the result o% socialisation, the teaching4oserving4learning process to
ecome a proper recognisale memer o% a social group. Socialisation ta0es place along
ontogeny# especially uring in%ancy# chilhoo an youth. During ontogeny# everything
starts ane/6 all iniviuals have a long an /ining roa to go e%ore ecoming human.
D.+remac0 :18'(; tal0e aout an upgraded contet %or primate cognition in the
la contet. Ie can spea0 o% the same %or the evolve contet o% humans6 one that
inclues the 0no/ing an oing o% many generations as in etene an eternalise
0no/lege# /here the history o% the group is re-presente an re-incorporate in
arte%acts# practices# communicational systems# rituals an symols. hese are calle
cultural affordances :Sinha 188C Shore 188C;# oects an /ays o% learning :Rogo%%
an *orelli 18'8;# proceures :Gentner an Stevens# 18'3; an emoie 0no/-ho/
:i.e. =ourieuHs habitus;# incluing collective canonical use :normative# evaluative#
aesthetic;18.
Ihat J. =runer :18'3; calle the scaffolded /orl /e live in# %ull o% rei%ications
an social arte%acts# constitutes the scenario %or chilren to uil up their o/n /ay into
a selecte environment# the %rame/or0s they /ill eplore %or meaning :=runer 188C;
1& 7%. *agnusson 7airns 188C 7airns# 7ostello an Eler# Jr# 188C Roertson 188C oren 188(#1883. ,n !eo-Dar/inism# ontogeny has no place. Bntogeny an phylogeny are mutually constitute anspeci%ie /ithin the organism itsle% :Goul 18&&;. Bntogeny provies continuity /ithin the species an
iscontinuity /ith respect to the rest. Evolution also epens on ontogenetic processes that are gooenough %or the viaility o% the organism# li%e an reprouction# as iscusse in the evo-devo eate:Gerhart 188&;.1'
?or humans# all ecological relations shoul inclue those perceptions# ieas an values through /hich
they try to ma0e sense o% their o/n actions. 7%. Descola +lsson# 188C >origan 18''. ?or theethnography o% appropriation, trans%ormation an representation o% nature# c%. Ellen 188C18
5no/lege goes /ell eyon the limits o% our o/n s0in an capacities.7ognition is also social in that it
is emoie an store in arte%acts :Donal 1881;# practices an rituals# relationships :Strathern 1888;# proceures# schemas# systems o% truth an po/er :?oucault 18&';. 7ognition is socially istriute alongother structural alignments.
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an :more or less; coherence# in a never-ening process o% re/or0ing the legacy o% their
elers2( an the choices K /ithin constraints - o% their generation-mates.
7aregivers ring %orth an structure chilrenHs ailities than0s to6 :1; the ialogy o%
care-giver4chil contet :Scha%%er 1882 =utter/orth 188C;21 :2; oy language an
inirect communication :Schie%%lein 188( >enry an Iatson 2((1;# an emotional
saliency :?ernal an *azzie 1881; :3; in%ant irect speech :,DS#aytal0# motherese;:?ernal et all. 18'8; 22# eploratory tal0 :*ercer 2(((;# proper speech styles :*iller
an Garvey 18');# an appropriate commentaries to the situation :=runer 18&9; :);
alternate participation as in turn-ta0ing :>oson 2((2 *ea 18C&; :9; guie#
eucate attention :=utter/orth an Jarrett# 1881 +alsson 188); :C; anticipatory
cognitive an emotional stimulation as in inter-mental developmental (one /here
chilren learn to ecome inter-thin0ers :*ercer 2(((61);.
7aregivers socialise proviing the %ocus# the clues# the saliency23# the %ormat an
ynamic repetitive an stanarise structures %rom /hich the chil /ill creatively uil
a share /orl o% his4her o/n. he eucation o% attention %ouns shared rules :*ercer
2(((6)(; aout /ays# contets an relevance# o% /hat goes /ithout saying# o% /hat /e
trust our /orl to e aout an o% /hich /e have intuitive# sel%-evient 0no/lege#/ithout concious trace o% its origins. ,t is y means o% guie iscovery an
oservation4imitation :DHAnrae 18'1; o% routines an emoie practices that
chilren are taught eterities :+alsson 188);# as sho/n in /or0manship learning
:=loch 1881 Rogo%% 188( Dougherty an 5eller 18'2;. Ihat you learn is to aopt a
perspective# /here an ho/ to loo0# listen# etc.# ho/ to uil up ne/ 0no/lege# ho/ to
creatively re/or0 ol pre-eisting resources# accoring to a sociocultural an historical
environment. 'ymbolic play is the laoratory /here chilren put in practice an re-/or0
the manipulatory# linguistic an social s0ills learnt in in%ancy :=retherton 18');.
!. 7homs0y /as right6 all chilren learn to spea0 aroun the same age. =ut not
ecause /e have genes %or spea0ing :5upiec Stoanovi0 2((2;. Rather# language is
the emergence o% many micro-ynamics in systems /ithin systems# that epen on6 1.
evolve4evelope specialise4amoal4cross-moal capacities# incluing neurological
an anatomical %eatures 2. an autopoietic rain open to the /orl an the eperiences it
may provie# an 3. a sociocultural lanscape that provies a structuring contet %or our
oy to evelop.
?or humans# an someho/ %or some other primates# /e soul tal0 o% a socially
engaging/engaged intelligence.
.). *hildren+s evolved/developed capacities
2( ,n social evolution# the etension o% the li%espan in hominis contriute to oler aults ecome livingevices %or the accumulation an teaching o% 0no/lege.21 ialogy oes not mean total shareaility or complete acuiescence# ut interpretation# multivoicenessan contrast :*atusov# 188C =a0htin# 188(;# not to mention a goo ose o% trust. !eoar/inistanthropological :primatological; pessimism even sees cooperation as an intereste ehaviour ecause# asgame theorist say# it pays off to be smart .22 inguistic an cultural contets vary :Bchs Schie%%elin 18') >ar0ness Super 18'3 Sagi et al.18'9 +ye 18'C;. Although ,n%ant Direct Speech is the prevalent case in the maority o% cultural settings#
chilren o not nee to participate irectly as communicating agents /ith their caregivers to learn ho/ tospee0# ut only as vicarious ones :revarthen 18''; it is enough that they are present in an interactivelinguistic setting that# nevertheless# allo/ them to e a/are o% agency# perspective an intentionality inothers# /ith /hich they may ienti%y through empathy an role assuming.23
Something ecomes relevant not ecause it roaens our in%ormation aout the /orl as in Sperer an Iilson :18'C; ut ecause it appeals an a%%ects us ue to /hat /e have ecome as persons anmemers o% sociocultural groups.
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>o/ o chilren come to e engage in this social /orl %or them to gro/ as
epistemic agentsQ 7hilren have socioiological engage4engagional capacities.
?or a given species# an uner similar conitions# the pattern o% evelopment is
common %or all iniviuals# possily ecause o% /hat Super :1881; mentions as
canalisation# the integration o% a genetic guiance /ithin an epigenetic lanscape that
gives rise to similar outcomes :Johnson an *orton 1881;. Some processes aneperiences /ithin suitale conitions have to happen then an there %or proper
evelopment. ,% not# permanent negative conseuences may come# epening on the
threshol passe or the local opportunity misse :Jaco 18&&;. Gottlie :18&1; spea0s
o% cognitive windows %or learning# that are active at speci%ic stages o% evelopment. Ie
all 0no/ the case o% singing irs that are not ale to contact %uture partners# there%ore
to reprouce# i% they have not learne ho/ to sing at the right time in evelopment#
ecoming barbari in their o/n species.
>uman in%ants come to the /orl uite /ell evelope in terms o% neural re%lees
:Eil-Eies%elt 1883; an percepto-sensoriality :5ellman Artererry 188';# /hich
eplains in part their active# uic0 an intense responsiveness to the /orl an to
themselves. ,n%ants are sensitive to some prenatal acoustic clues o% prenatal eperiences:De 7asper an Spence 18'C;. =ut ailities epen on percepto-sensory eperience that
is culturally emee an socially triggere. Sensory potential reuires interactive
learning an %ine-tuning uring etra-uterine evelopment :Ste/art 7ohen 188&61)(
an %%.; 2)
Emotional epressiveness in chilren appears uite early# than0s to evolve %acial
muscles :E0man 18&3 18&8 ,zar 18&&;. 7rying an social smiling are speci%ic human
evices %or communicating /ith their conespeci%ics :Eil-Eies%elt 18'36)1-)2
5illrie 18&9; an estalish the typical human oning :=o/ly 18C8 Ains/orth
18'3; has important emotional conseuences %or caregiversH engagement in parenting
:5onner 1881;. his tenency an openess to/ars others is calle intersubectivity y
7. revarthen :18'( 18'';. =aling is the linguistic :+etitto an *arentette# 1881
+etitto 2(((;# evelopmental seuel o% this aility to communicate.
7hilren sho/ early interest in /hat surrouns them# /hich is compose mainly
o% %aces# voices an oily practices. ?rom the age o% t/o months# they li0e %aces /ith
all %eatures K nose# eyes# lips# ro/s - correctly place :*aurer 18'9; 29. ,% zeras
recognise their mothers y their %ace stripes# so o human in%ants :=ushnell et al. 18'8;#
pre%erring them to others :De 7asper an ?i%er 18'( Johnson an *orton 1881;. hey
also pre%er their caregiversH voices to those o% others. =y three months o% age they
istinguish i%%erent voices an even phonemic contrasts in language :Eimas 18&';. At
%ive months o% age they alreay recognise iniviual %aces an aroun si months# they
perceive gener i%%erences :5ellerman an Artererry 188'62&)-2&9;. he aility toestalish emotional lin0s continues in another attachment stage %rom C to 12 months# as
sho/n in the strange situation :Ains/orth et al. 18&';.
Autistic chilren have a e%%icency in emotional oning # eing later impaire %or
empathy an social re%erencing # proto-imperatives an proto-eclaratives# recognition
o% intentionality# perspective-ta0ing an social cognition to various egrees :Iimpory et
al. 2((( =aron-7ohen 1889;. earning# memory# language e%icits an other cognitive
isorers may also e the outcome o% amage in the lymic system :=achevalier 188);.
2) 7ats cannot istinguish horizontal lines i% they have not een epose to them early :7%. Ste/art
7ohen 188&;. ,n a carpentered environment # %ull o% angles an straight lines# /esterners are much moresusceptile o% optical illusions than other people in other ethnographic contets : Eil-Eies%elt 1883;.29 *aye ue to the human pre%erence %or symmetry :c%. Eiel-Eies%elt 18&9;.
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*uch has een sai aout early human mimetic capacities :7%. *eltzo%% +rinz
2((2 !ael =utter/orth 1888;. !e/orn aies# only )9 minutes ol# have een
reporte to stic0 their tongues out in imitation o% a human %ace :>oson 2((26 3( %%.;.
,t seems there is an aility to connect an event# map it neurologically an o%%er a motor
response to it. *irror neurons have een %oun in other primates :Rizolatti et al. 188C
,acoonni et al.# 1888 !ishitani >ari 2(((; an may constitute precursors %or humanimitation.2C. Ihen humans imitate# they also attriute intentionality to the interactor 2
ienti%ying /ith his4her perspective in a continuous movement o% proimity an
istance :>oson 2((261(&; that is ho/ a perspective is gaine :omasello 1888; as
/ell as the capacity %or eternalisation o% sel% an ienti%ication /ith others. >uman
imitation is not replication# nor re-prouction ut re-creation6 it is the copying that
originates0 :Geertz 18'C63'(;.
,n conclusion# than0s to the sensory an mental openness o% the chil# /e can spea0
o% an ecological rain :=ateson 18&2; that is sculpte :=ates 18&8; than0s to socially
elicite an upgrae capacities uring his4her co-ontogeny /ith other persons.
&. 'e em#odied and e(periential mind !eoar/inism# in accorance /ith a rationalist conception o% a isemoie
epistemic agent cannot provie a comprehensive theory o% 0no/lege an ho/ this is
prouce.
*in is the emergent outcome o% rain neurophisiological activity. =oy# emotions#
action an eperience are asent in neoar/inist accounts o% cognition. 7artesianism
eliminate passion an sensoriality %rom rationality# ecause they elonge to the lo/er
instincts an oily humours :c%. Shilling *ellor 188C; that con%use the min. *in
is not only cognition as in 7ognitivism. 5no/ing is also aout suective eperience as
in esires# motivation# intention# memory# %eelings# senses# actions# /hich are all
corporal /or0ings that imply i%%erent egrees o% neural compleity. Ie o not ecoe
in%ormation an then process it :Searle 188(;. As e/ontin :18'2# 18'3; suggests# /e
put much more o% ourselves into it. So oy# emotions# an practices are relevant %or
cognition.
1.!. $ody
Bnly through our oy can /e really prouce 0no/lege# as the intert/ining o%
cognition# memory# an emotion in an ecosocial environment.
Emoiment theories o% cognition :Johnson 18'& a0o%% 18'& Johnson an
a0o%% 1888 +utnam 1888; spea0 o% cognitive structures that emerge %rom recurrent
sensory-motor patterns that allo/ %or action to e perceptually guie :c%.in%ra;. ?.
@arela :188161&3;# says that cognition epens on the 0in o% eperiences that /e have
than0s to a oy /ith sensory-motor capacities# these capacities eing emee in anencompassing iological# psychological an cultural contet 2'.
1.&. "motions
2C earning ho/ to pronounce is one not only y listening ut also y /atching ho/ souns arearticulate y lips# tongue# etc. :S0oyles 188&;. +honetic classi%ication is not ase on souns ut onmotor /ays %or proucing souns an consonants. *irror neurons :c%. in%ra; /oul easily imitate vo/elmovements than0s to categoriality an contrastivity# i.e. tas0onomy.2&
A/areness o% irectionality o% gaze as a sign o% intentionality is a phylogenetic trait humans share /ith
other animals such as irs :Gri%%in 1882; an mammals# than0s to specialise visual neurons :*aunsellet al. 18'& +erret et al. 18'2;.2' Ie o not /ant to ecome too feely/touchy. Emoie cognition oes not preclue in%erence# astractor %ormal thin0ing# as relatively autonomous an sel%-organise mental processes suectivelly evoi o%
oy a/areness :c%. eer 188(;# than0s to recursivity an reescription# re/or0ing an reorganisation inthe rain. %ot everything nee to e previously eperience. ,n%erence may /ell e unerstoo as anemergency o% previous eperiences mentally re/or0e an re-elaorate.
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7ognition an emotion are mental activities that have een split in Iestern account o%
/hat is the min# ecluing the last one :Ram
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means o% an operational closure :as in the cell memrane;# they actively select an outer
omain o% speci%ication :@arela et al. 1881;# an environment # through /hich they uil
their o/n inner space. han0s to this relational closure# a constituted order K less
comple than the environment - is create %or the evelopment an %uture viaility :not
optimality; o% the system. ?or any organism# there is an enacte an signi%icant
environment# allo/e an propitiate y the organismHs o/n a%%orances :Gison18&8;. As in accounts o% niche construction organisms an environments are mutually
especi%ie :e/ontin# 18'2 ythgoe# 18&8 *aturana @arela# 1882 alan et
al.2(((;.
7. +eirce :18'&; sai that thin0ing /as acting in a chain o% thoughts an actions.
Ethnomethoology propose a practical-theoretical agent :Gar%in0el 18');. . ,ngol
:18836)3); criticises the unerlying ichotomy et/een the technical-practical an the
cognitive sho/n in most social intelligence theories :i.e. Ihiten =yrne# 18'';. ?or
the sa0e o% their intrinsic relationships# he istinguishes et/een thin0ing as inward-
directed action# an oing as outward-directed action. hin0ing# classi%ying# ecision-
ma0ing# planning an rememering# oserving# eing# are alreay actions4eperiences#
i% only ecause something happens in our rain-in-the-oy3( . Bur /orl is perceiveto e enacte an live %rom i%%erent eperiences o% engagement31 an sensory-mental
states :>alton 1889 amiah 1882 ;. here%ore# it seems etter to tal0 o% an
e3periential realism :+utnam 1888 a0o%% an Johnson# 1888;. hings are not more
real ecause they %it our mental representations more or less ut ecause they are live
through eperience. Bur ualitative :DHAnrae 18'1 7halmers 188&; an ecorate
version o% the /orl :system an environment; is# someho/ virtual# a figment o% reality
:Ste/art 7ohen# 188&61'8;.
&. )eturn 'ic!et" 'e recursivity of cognition.
,n this paper , have supporte a non eterministic approach to cognition# /hich#
nevertheless# oes not preclue %or a leaing role over other omains at some
evolutionary4evelopmentally point. A property o% autopoietic systems as the human
rain-in-the-oy is# is that o% recursivity. his means that mental activity may e
/or0e an re-/or0e itsel% than0s to connectivity o% systems o% neural systems
to/ars other graes o% compleity# as in 5armilo%%-Smith :1882; re-description,or
SpererHs :2(((; meta-representations. =ut not only up4sie/ars. Autopoietic systems
may also re-create compleity /ithin themselves y means o% susystems :an their
micro-environments; that ecome relatively autonomous# oscilating in et/een a
epenently inepenence :7airns-Smith 188C6)8; an a lieration %rom sensitiveness
to initial conitions. his allo/s %or these susystems to ecome po/er%ul triggering
%orces on their o/n %or %urther outcomes an onto other omains.*otivate 0no/legeale human practices ecome oecti%ie :hence aritrary; y
means o% rutinisation4ritualisation# typi%ication an institutionalisation# that introuce
ne/ ynamics an emergencies /ithin the system. hrough this e3ternalisation#
0no/lege ecomes oecti%ie# communicale# structure# memorise :Donal# 1881;#
knowable %or others to evaluate# iscuss# agree upon an re/or0. Becti%ications coul
e unerstoo as attractors that orient# irect an capture human activity in its
3(Action# meaning an communication are relate in chil evelopment# sho/ing unerlying analogies:not homologies; in categorisation# en-means relations# agent-action-patient lin0s# tas0 constraints:=ates# 18&8 Rivire# 18') Green%iel# 1881; .31
Action# participation an eperience are not reuce to actual agency. ?or instance# epening on
i%%erent sociocultural an historical contets# chilren are i%%erently immerse in the pragmatic /orl o% their caregivers# in a stage4lanscape /here things happen :an o not happen; to themselves :chil-rearing practices# participant4non-participant oservation# co-presence# etc.;.
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gravitational space# in its %lues an echanges as /ell as in its more consoliate an
structure %orms.
he eternalise rei%ication processes /ere starte y hominis through social
relationships an their mar0ers# environmental selection4appropriation4trans%ormation
:i.e.oect prouction# technology;# ritual enactments - incluing oily /or0.
Eternalisation allo/e %or a ne/ 0in o% recursivity that may have spe up othcrossmoality an especialisation as seen in the eponential cognitive an social
compleity o% homo sapiens sapiens in the late +leistocene. Devices that /ere selecte#
invente# eaptate# than0s to socioiological cognitive ailities ecame sel%-organise
an relatively autonomous as ne/ attractors that catalyse some o% these very same
capacities# giving them ne/ strength an ne/ irection. Bnce in motion# as in
omaselloHs :1888; ratchet effect # or @icoHs history in spiral# there is no /ay ac0.
anguage nees some cognitive evolve capacities as its necessary :although not
su%%icient# c%. Rol%e 188C; environment ut once emerge :=ic0erton 188(; an then
%ully evelope# it may have pulle the cart o% cognition %urther on# /ithout ontologic
prevalence as in the Sapir-Iol% eate. echnology may e also the case :oc0
Symes 188C;# as in notation an /riting as /ell :Gooy 18&& Blson 18'( 188C;. Asevices to 0eep trac0 o% an recor 0no/lege# things :oects# people# practices#
rituals# time# events; ecame countale an hence controlle in a ne/ /ay# %ouning
ne/ /ays %or people to relate to one another an /ith respect to etensive material
oects. !or less as communicational evices eyon local place an time. his
change social relationships. Social eperience ecame structure an %ormalise y
means o% accountaility# iscourse# classi%ication an %ormalise representational
systems# proceeings# rules an meta-rules as /ell as corporative specialise 0no/lege
an the po/er it entaile.
*.Conclusions
im ,ngol has as0e on i%%erent occasions %or a ne/ agena in evolutionary stuies
that /oul %ocus on Nthe sel%-organising ynamics an %orm-generating potentials o%
relational %ielsO. , thin0 that ynamic systems theories o%%er a more encompassing
approach to the multi-level an multi-moal relationships o% emee processes in human
socio-cognitive evolution. ,% Evolutionary Epistemology /ants to o ustice to the
comple process o% /hat it is to ecome a human as a relational organism /ith its
environment# it is necessary to pay attention to the over/helming role that the sociocultural
has in speci%ying /hat an ho/ these relations are. , trust that all o% us intereste in human
evolution an evelopment /ill ene%it %rom the e%%ort.
Re%erences
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o% language *urrent 2nthropology 3)6 1')-8).
Ains/orth# *ary. 18'3. +atterns o% in%ant-mother attachment as relate to maternal
care ,n6 *agnusson# Davi an Allen# @ernon# es# Human development# an
interactional perspective. !e/ Tor06 Acaemic +ress.
Ains/orth# *ary et al. 18&'. Patterns of attachment# 2 psychological study of the
'trange 'ituation. >illsale# !.J.6 Erlaum.
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*nch an !eil# J. Smelser :es;# 4he Micro-Macro 5ink . =er0eley . os Angeles6University o% 7ali%ornia +ress.
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=oy# Richar an Richerson# +eter J. 18'3. /o Distinct Routes =eyon 5in
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=runer# Jerome. 18'1. he Social 7ontet o% anguage Acuisition. 5anguage and
*ommunication 16 199-&'.
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