Qualitative Research

Definitions Quantitative Research - investigation in which

the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by isolating and measuring components of that reality without regard to their contextual setting.

Qualitative Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by examining it in a holistic way or by examining components of that reality within their contextual setting.

Different Ways of Looking at Things Quantitative

Positivistic Epistemological basis is Realism Dates to the Age of Enlightenment

Qualitative Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic [PRE?]) Epistemological basis is Idealism Dates informally to prehistoric times

Formally to ancient Greece

Quantitative Research Reality is independent of human

understanding Reality can be defined as separate

and observable variables Goal of research is to define

and measure those variables Most accurate way to measure variables

is individually and in isolation We understand reality by defining all the

pertinent variables

Qualitative Research Human understanding and

interpretation define reality Complex reality can be understood

only as amalgam and not as simply a sum of its parts

Goal of research is to examine complex phenomena to define the reality within

To be meaningful, inquiry must be holistic and contextual

Researchers Argue Quantitative researchers fail because they can

neither adequately define nor accurately measure enough of the variables to understand complex natural interactions.

Qualitative researchers cannot rigorously examine the detailed structures underlying complex natural interactions.

Researchers Argue “Purists” contend

Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are incompatible because they have different epistemological bases.

Using them together is “mixing paradigms.” Others believe

Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are simply different ways of looking at phenomena

Using them together is symbiotic

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Purpose is understanding Oriented toward discovery Uses subjective data Extracts meaning from data Interprets results in

context Focus is holistic

Advantages of Qualitative Research

In-depth Examination of Phenomena Uses subjective information Not limited to rigidly definable variables Examine complex questions that can be

impossible with quantitative methods Deal with value-laden questions Explore new areas of research Build new theories

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

Subjectivity leads to procedural problems Replicability is very difficult Researcher bias is built in and unavoidable In-depth, comprehensive approach to

data gathering limits scope Labor intensive, expensive Not understood well by

“classical” researchers

Organizational Structures Historical Analysis Ethnography Phenomenology Life History,

Chronology,Historiography

Case Study

Historical Analysis

Archival Research Primary Documents Secondary Sources

Artifacts Relics Oral Histories

Ethnography

External Observation Passive Observation Balanced Participation Observation Participant Observation

Life History, Chronology, Historiography

Archival/Historical Personal Journals

Written Journals Electronic Journals

Electronic Media Long Term Observation Interviews

Case Study Detailed, in-depth examination of a

person, group, or setting Multiple data sources, perspectives Focus is on the individual or group, not

the population Meaning is extracted from observation Findings are instructive, not generalizable

Researcher seeks a complete picture of a total, complex situation

There may be no attempt to isolate specific variables or to answer specific questions

If specific questions are asked, the answers are sought within the context in which the phenomena naturally occur.

Holistic Approach

Internal Validity Validity is primarily a positivistic concept In qualitative research, equates to credibility

The right setting and informants Accurate reflection of situation, informant

perceptions Multiple approaches lead to similar results Multiple researchers yield similar interpretations Peer review/Informant review

External Validity In qualitative research, equates to

transferability Transferability is responsibility of reader,

not researcher Provide dense description Use nominated informant sample Provide detailed demographic and

situational description

To Seek Validity (Wolcott, 1990) (Think Credibility, Transferability)

Listen and observe carefully Be candid Record accurately Begin writing report early Use primary data in report Use all data for final report Seek feedback Seek balance Write accurately

Reliability Reliability is primarily a positivistic

concept Reliability in qualitative research equates to

dependability Different researchers reach similar

interpretations Repeated examinations produce similar

observations Multiple researchers produce similar

interpretations of the same data

Triangulation Multiple perspectives, data sources,

researchers, data collection techniques Strongest evidence for credibility,

dependability, transferability Concept originated in navigation

Navigation using known points The more known points/angles, the

more accurate the “fix” on the unknown location

Corroboration

Multiple informants hold similar perceptions

Same informant responds consistently to related questions

An attempt to confirm consistency of perception not accuracy of perception

Constant Comparison Collect and analyze initial data Develop tentative conclusions,

hypotheses, themes Collect and analyze additional data Test against initial conclusions, hypotheses,

themes Seek new perspectives, data sources Write, re-write, re-assess, re-write, etc...

Discovery Approach to Qualitative Research

Identify setting to be studied Conduct initial data collection Analyze for emerging themes Formulate tentative questions, hypotheses,

theses Focus subsequent data collection to test/expand

initial themes Questions, themes, hypotheses, theories

EMERGE from the research

Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research

Define specific questions Define setting Identify informants Collect initial data Develop initial hypothesis

Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research

Collect additional data to test fit of hypothesis

Redefine questions or reformulate hypothesis based on further data collection and analysis

Search for negative case to disprove hypothesis

Qualitative Research: A Different Way of Looking

at the World Naturalistic Holistic Contextual Rich In-depth Reality derived not measured

Unstructured Interview Define basic goal Select setting for comfort of informant Try to establish rapport, trust Gently guide discussion toward goal Pursue profitable leads, tangents Make careful notes or electronic recording

during interview if practicable as soon afterward as possible otherwise

Structured Interview

Define precise objectives Develop, validate, field test interview

schedule (protocol) Select setting for comfort of informant Try to establish rapport, trust Initiate interview using protocol Focus on specifics of protocol

Structured Interview Do not accept yes/no responses,

probe for more Pursue profitable tangents Remain flexible to encourage informant to talk Gently guide informant through protocol Make careful notes or electronic recording

during interview if practicable as soon afterward as possible otherwise

Focus Group Define goals Select participants Establish rapport Initiate discussion Encourage free discussion, but Guide discussion toward the goals Avoid contaminating discussion with

own biases

Ethnographic Observation Identify Goals Select site Establish rapport Determine critical informants Make detailed field notes Begin writing report from the start Observations external, passive, balanced, or

participant