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mastering the world ofpsychology
CHAPTER
fifth edition
Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved
Consciousness
4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
4.1 How do psychologists view consciousness?4.2 What is the connection between altered
states of consciousness and culture?4.3 How do circadian rhythms affect physiological
and psychological functions?4.4 How do disruptions in circadian rhythms
affect the body and mind?4.5 How do the restorative and circadian theories
explain sleep?4.6 What types of sleep occur during a typical
night of sleep?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
4.7 How does age influence sleep patterns?4.8 What are the effects of sleep deprivation?4.9 What are the various sleep disorders?4.10 What have researchers learned about
dreams?4.11 How do the various theorists explain dreams?4.12 What are the benefits of meditation?4.13 How and why does hypnosis influence the
body and mind?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
4.14 How do drugs affect the brain's neurotransmitter system?
4.15 How do physical and psychological drug dependence differ?
4.16 How do stimulants affect behavior?4.17 How do depressants affect behavior?4.18 How do hallucinogens affect behavior?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Overview
• What Is Consciousness?• Circadian Rhythms• Sleep• Dreams• Meditation and Hypnosis• Psychoactive Drugs
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
What is Consciousness?Changing Views of Consciousness• Consciousness
– everything of which we are aware at any given time thoughts, feelings, sensations, and
external environment• Early Psychologists
– saw consciousness as psychological in nature
LO 4.1
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
What is Consciousness?Changing Views of Consciousness• Today's Psychologists
– think about consciousness in neurobiological terms due to recent scientific advances
LO 4.1
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
What is Consciousness? Culture and Altered States of Consciousness
• Altered State of Consciousness– a change in awareness produced by
sleep, meditation, hypnosis, or drugs• Religious and Cultural Traditions
– often have supernatural explanations for altered states of consciousness
– Many have rituals that intentionally induce altered states of consciousness.
LO 4.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
What is Consciousness? Culture and Altered States of Consciousness
• There may be a universal human need to produce and maintain varieties of conscious experiences.
LO 4.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythm: The Influenceof Circadian Rhythms
• Circadian Rhythm regular fluctuation from high to low
points of certain bodily functions and behaviors within a 24-hour cycle
regulate all vital life functions More than 100 bodily functions and
behaviors follow circadian rhythms.
LO 4.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythm: The Influenceof Circadian Rhythms
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus – structure in the hypothalamus– body's biological clock– controls timing of circadian rhythms– signals pineal gland to secrete or
suppress melatonin
LO 4.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythm: The Influenceof Circadian Rhythms
• The ebb and flow of circadian rhythms is not strictly biological.– Photoreceptors in retinas respond to the
amount of light reaching the eye, affecting rhythms.
LO 4.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythm: The Influenceof Circadian Rhythms
• Two Important Circadian Rhythms– body temperature
sleep best when body temperature is lowest
most alert when body temperature is at daily high point
LO 4.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythm: The Influenceof Circadian Rhythms
• Two Important Circadian Rhythms– alertness
follows a circadian rhythm separate from sleep/wakefulness cycle
less alert between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m., 2:00 and 7:00 a.m.
LO 4.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythms: Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms• Jet lag and working during subjective
night disrupt circadian rhythms.– can lead to sleep difficulty, reduced
alertness, memory deficits– Melatonin supplements are helpful in
alleviating jet lag.
LO 4.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Circadian Rhythms: Disruptions in Circadian Rhythms• Subjective Night
– time during a 24-hour period when the biological clock tells a person to go to sleep
LO 4.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Sleep:Why We Sleep
• Two complementary theories have been advanced to explain the need to sleep.– restorative theory of sleep
The function of sleep is to restore body and mind.
Restoration of energy and the consolidation of memory do occur during sleep.
LO 4.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Sleep:Why We Sleep
• Two complementary theories have been advanced to explain the need to sleep.– circadian theory of sleep
Sleep evolved to keep humans out of harm's way during the night.
also known as evolutionary or adaptive theory
LO 4.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
How We Sleep:Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM)• Stage 1: transition from waking to
sleeping; irregular waves with occasional alpha waves
• Stage 2: transition from light to deeper sleep; sleep spindles (waves with alternating periods of calm and flashes of intense activity) appear
LO 4.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
How We Sleep:Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM)• Stage 3: deeper sleep; slow-wave sleep
begins when EEG shows that 20 percent of brain waves are delta waves
• Stage 4: deepest sleep; Stage 4 sleep begins when 50 percent of waves are delta waves
LO 4.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 4.1 Brain-Wave Patterns Associated with Different Stages of SleepBy monitoring brain-wave activity on an EEG throughout a night’s sleep, researchers have identified the brain-wave patterns associated with different stages of sleep. As sleepers progress through the four NREM stages, the brain-wave pattern changes from faster, smaller waves in Stages 1 and 2 to the slower, larger delta waves in Stages 3 and 4.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
How We Sleep:Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)• During REM, the brain is highly active.• Epinephrine is released into the
system.– Blood pressure rises.– Heart rate and respiration become
faster and less regular.• Most vivid dreams occur during REM.
LO 4.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
How We Sleep:Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REM)• REM sleep may be critical to the
consolidation of memories.• REM Rebound
– increase in REM sleep after REM deprivation
LO 4.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Variations in Sleep
• Infants and Young Children – sleep the longest– have largest percentage of REM and
slow-wave sleep• Children from 6 to Puberty
– sleep best– most consistent sleepers and wakers
LO 4.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Variations in Sleep
• Adolescents– sleep patterns influenced by schedules– Insufficient sleep may contribute to poor
school performance.• Older Adults
– more difficulty falling asleep; sleep more lightly
– spend more time in bed, but less time asleep
LO 4.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 4.2 Average Hours of Daily Sleep across the Life Span.The number of hours devoted to sleep in each 24-hour period decreases dramatically across the life span.Sources: Foley, Ancoli-Israel, Britz, & Walsh, 2004; Iglowstein, Jenni, Molinari, & Largo, 2003; Hansen, Janssen, Schiff, & Zee, 2005; Millman, 2005; Mindell, 1999; Ohayan, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Sleep Deprivation
• Effects of Sleep Deprivation– difficulty concentrating– impaired learning– negative mood
LO 4.8
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Sleep Deprivation
• Effects on the Brain– decreased activity in temporal lobes
during verbal learning tasks– increased activity in prefrontal cortex
and parietal lobes compensates for decreased temporal
lobe activity
LO 4.8
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Parasomnias and Dyssomnias
• Parasomnia behaviors and physiological states that
normally occur only in the waking state take place during sleep
• Dyssomnia – sleep disorder in which the timing,
quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired
LO 4.9
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Sleep Disorders
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Content of Our Dreams
• REM Dreams– have a story-like quality– more visual, vivid, and emotional than
NREM dreams• NREM Dreams
– occur during NREM sleep– less frequent and memorable than REM
dreams
LO 4.10
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Content of Our Dreams
• Lucid Dreaming– set of techniques that enable dreamers
to control the content of dreams– Lucid dreams about exercise actually
seem to improve heart function.
LO 4.10
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Interpreting Dreams
• Freud believed that dreams satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive desires.– These desires are unacceptable to the
dreamer and must be disguised in symbolic forms.
LO 4.11
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Interpreting Dreams
• Freud believed that dreams satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive desires.– manifest content
content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer
– latent content the underlying meaning of a dream
LO 4.11
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Interpreting Dreams
• Activation-Synthesis Theory– Dreams are the brain's attempt to make
sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep.
• Evolutionary Theory– Vivid REM dreams enable people to
rehearse skills needed to deal with threatening events.
LO 4.11
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Meditation
• Techniques used to:– Block out distractions and achieve an
altered state of consciousness – Focus attention on an object, word,
one's breathing, or body movements• Can be helpful for physical and
psychological problems– controlling emotions– lowering blood pressure
LO 4.12
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Meditation
• Neuroimaging studies suggest that some areas of brain may be permanently changed by long-term meditation practice.
LO 4.12
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hypnosis
• Procedure through which a hypnotist uses suggestion to change thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior in the subject
• Some people cannot be hypnotized.• Viable technique used in medicine,
dentistry, psychiatry• Used in surgical pain management
LO 4.13
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Table 4.1 What Do You Know about Hypnosis?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Theories of Hypnosis
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Psychoactive Drugs
• Any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought– controlled substances
approved for medical use– illicit substances
illegal
LO 4.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Psychoactive Drugs
• Many over-the-counter drugs are psychoactive.– antihistamines, decongestants
• Certain foods (such as chocolate) may alter mood.
LO 4.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
How Drugs Affect the Brain
• Psychoactive drugs create a sense of pleasure by increasing availability of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, a part of the brain's limbic system.
• How drugs affect neurotransmission:– Opiates mimic the effects of endorphins.– Depressants act on GABA receptors.– Stimulants mimic the effects of
epinephrine.
LO 4.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Substance Abuse and Addiction
• Substance Abuse– continued use of a substance that
negatively affects an individual's work, education, and social relationships
• Physical Drug Dependence– User develops:
drug tolerance – becomes less affected by drug, needs
more for same effect
LO 4.15
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Substance Abuse and Addiction
• Physical Drug Dependence– User develops:
withdrawal symptoms– physical and psychological symptoms that
arise when use is discontinued• Psychological Drug Dependence
– a craving or irresistible urge for the drug's pleasurable effects
LO 4.15
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Stimulants
• Speed up activity in the central nervous system– suppress appetite– User feels more awake, alert, and
energetic.
LO 4.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Stimulants
• Stimulants include:– Caffeine– Nicotine– Amphetamine– Cocaine
LO 4.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Depressants
• Decrease activity in the central nervous system– slow down bodily functions– reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation
• Categories:– Sedative-hypnotics
alcohol barbiturates minor tranquilizers (benzodiazepines)
LO 4.17
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Depressants
• Categories:– Narcotics (opiates)
morphine, heroin OxyContin, Vicodin
LO 4.17
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• Alter and distort perceptions of time and space
• Cause hallucinations– have no basis in external reality
• Magnify the mood of the user at the time the drug was taken
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include:– Marijuana
impairs attention and coordination and slows reaction time
smaller brain volume and a lower percentage of gray matter in the brain's cortex in users starting before age 17
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include:– Marijuana
appears to permanently stunt the development of neurons in the hippocampal regions of the brains of young users
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)– Average "trip" lasts 10 to 12 hours– Usually produces extreme perceptual
and emotional changes visual hallucinations and feelings of
panic
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)– Some users develop hallucinogen
persisting perception disorder (HPPD) visual cortex highly stimulated whenever
individual shuts eyes chronic visual hallucinations when trying
to sleep
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Hallucinogens
• Designer Drugs– Attempt to mimic effects of other drugs
without negative effects– All are derived from amphetamine.– STP (Serenity, Tranquility, Peace) and
Ecstasy (MDMA)
LO 4.18
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms of Some Psychoactive Drugs
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms of Some Psychoactive Drugs (continued)