Post on 22-Jan-2015
description
Process theories
of motivation
CONTENTS What is motivation? Contemporary theories of motivation
-Cognitive Evaluation Theory
-Goal Setting Theory
-Self Efficacy Theory
-Reinforcement Theory
-Equity Theory
-Expectancy Theory
What is motivation? Motivation is the process that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
Motivation is the result of the interaction between an individual and a situation.
Motivation process is universal, all people are motivated to pursue goals they value.
The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times.
Contemporary theories of motivation
Each contemporary theory has a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation. We call them “contemporary theories” not because they were all developed recently but because they represent current state of thinking in explaining employee motivation.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory Goal Setting Theory Self Efficacy Theory Reinforcement Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
A theory that states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
When looking at task, we evaluate it in terms of how well it meets our needs to feel competent and in control. If we think we will be able to complete the task, we will be intrinsically motivated to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation.
People may see external rewards as achieving some degree of control over them or may see the reward as informational, such as where they reinforce feelings of competence and self-determination. When people see the reward as mostly for control they will be motivated by gaining the reward but not by enacting the requested behavior.
A recent outgrowth of cognitive evaluation theory is self concordance, which considers the degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
For example: If individuals pursue goals because of an intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain goals and are happy even if they don’t attain them.
In contrast, people who pursue goals for extrinsic reasons are less likely to attain their goals and are less happy even when they do achieve them.
Goal Setting Theory A theory that says that specific and difficult goals with
feedback, lead to higher performance. According to Edwin Locke, intentions to work toward a goal are
a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much
effort will need to be extended. “More difficult the goal, higher the level of performance”
because: Challenging goals help to get our attention and tend to help us
focus. Difficult goals energize us because we have to work harder to
attain them.
When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them. Difficult goals lead us to discover strategies that help us to
perform the job or task more efficiently. People do better when they get feedback on how well they are
progressing toward their goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do; that is , feedback acts to guide behavior.
Factors that have been found to influence the goals-performance relationship are:
o Goal commitment-Goal setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal. Individual believes that he/she can achieve the goal or wants to achieve it.
o Task characteristics-Goals seem to have a more substantial effect on performance rather than complex and independent rather than interdependent.
o National culture-Goal setting theory is culture bound. It assumes that employees will be reasonably independent, that managers and employee will seek challenging goals and that performance is considered important by both.
Self Efficacy Theory Self efficacy(also known as social cognitive theory or social
learning theory) refers to an individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task.
Higher your self efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task and respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation.
Self efficacy can be increased by four ways:o Enactive mastery-gaining relevant experience with the task or
job.o Vicarious modeling-becoming more confident because you
see someone else doing the task.
o Verbal persuasion-becoming more confident because convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful.
o Arousal-leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. But, when arousal is not relevant, then arousal hurts performance.
Goal setting theory and self efficacy theory don’t compete with one another; rather they complement each other.
Reinforcement Theory A theory that says that behavior is a function of its
consequences. Ignores internal state of a person. Focuses only on what happens to a person as a result of an
action taken. Ignores elements like: feelings, attitudes, expectations etc. “Understand relationship between behaviors and
consequences….arrange contingences that reinforce desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable behaviors”.
STIMULUS ====== RESPONSE ===== CONSEQUENCE
Types of Reinforcement
EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR
TYPE OF REINFORCEME
NT CONSEQUENCE
EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR (Future)
Improved Performance Positive Praise improvement Repeat quality work
Improved Performance Negative Do not give any reprimand Repeat quality work
Performance not improved Extinction Withhold praise/raise Do not repeat poor
work
Performance not improved Punishment Discipline action, such
as written warningDo not repeat poor
work
Equity Theory A theory that says that behavior is a function of its
consequences. Motivation is influenced significantly by others’ rewards as well
as by one’s own rewards. Most research has focused on pay, but employees seem to look
for equity in the distribution of other rewards. Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice. But
increasingly equity is thought of from the standpoint of organizational justice.
Managers should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made, following consistent and unbiased procedures.
Ratio Comparisons
Perception
O/IA < O/IBInequity – under
rewarded
O/IA = O/IB Equity
O/IA > O/IBInequity – over
rewarded
Model of organizational justice
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE
INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE
Perceived fairness of amount the amount and
allocation of rewards
Perceived fairness of process used to determine the distribution
Perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern and respect
Organizational JusticeOverall perception of what is fair in the workplace
Expectancy Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that the outcome to the individual.
The theory focuses on three relationships:
1. Effort-performance.
2. Performance-reward.
3. Rewards-personal goals.
Indivudua lE ffor t
P e rs ona lG oa ls
O rga niza tiona lR e w a rds
Individua lP e rform a nc e
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Assumptions: Both internal (needs) and external (environment) affect
behavior; Behavior is individual’s decision; People have different needs, desires & goals; People make behavior decisions based on their
perception of outcome
Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valance
I can achieve this
target
I will get a reward
Winning this reward is important
for me