Post on 16-Dec-2015
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most important: possession (medium)◦ impersonation of deceased by descendant◦ by deity/demon◦ human or object (e.g. writing object or sedan chair)
less common: spirit travel (shaman)◦ world of the dead◦ world of the unborn child (Flower Gardens, in
southern China) visitation by or encounter with extra-humans dreams moonblocks etc.
types of contact
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巫 , 覡 archaizing terminology, not necessarily shaman as defined above
降 , 下 describes the descent of a deity/demon 附 describes possession, usually of a demon 尸 possession (only in pre-Han texts) 見鬼 seeer of demons (very common in zhiguai texts) 香頭 (N. China) 童乩 (Fujian/Taiwan) 鸞壇, 扶乩 抽籤 筊
beware: ◦ autonym or label (almost invariably the latter)◦ terms such as wu never sufficient evidence
varied terminology
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disapproval educated elite over last centuries
prohibited & persecuted after 1911, certainly 1949
seen as typical “ethnic minority” fieldwork highly sensitive
insufficient research
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楚辭◦ 離騷 attributed to Qu Yuan 屈原 since bio by Sima Qian 司馬
遷◦ 九歌◦ 招魂◦ attributions more relevant as beliefs than as historical facts
shamanic songs?◦ 離騷 an emotional song about his fate in (political) life, no
indication of spirit travel, leave alone possession (e.g. translation)
◦ 九歌 ritual songs, neither spirit travel or possession◦ 招魂 precursor Daoist ritual, if anything
source of elite stereotype◦ “south” as shamanic (and north not!)◦ “south” as location Nuo exorcist ritual
a preliminary issue
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some possibilities◦ medium cults derided by early Daoists of
Heavenly Master tradition, later also educated elite in general
◦ on elite/prestige level accepted until early Song◦ shift performers, regionally differentiated, from
male to female (Ioan Lewis thesis) regional specificity
◦ to be combined with historical change, ex. Huizhou *dangki (late Ming local history)
issues
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(how) does it work?◦ minimizing incertitude◦ delegating impossible decisions◦ interpreters of medium/spirit writers “messages”
know local people & local situation examples
◦ Arthur Kleinman argument for Taiwan◦ Record of Miraculous Responses by the Generals
將軍靈驗記 from the Lord Guan cult
aided decisions
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Max Weber’s concept in the eyes of the beholder, not an absolute
quality: belief by followers that someone possesses extraordinary qualities◦ routinized charisma (when derived from office,
special objects, lineage)◦ personal charisma (without pedigree)
outside institutionalized structures, not bound (NB there may be cultural conventions about what counts as charismatic)
charisma gives a personal hold over people, feared and rejected/persecuted by establishment
charisma
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ling 靈 ability to work miracles (positive) yin 淫 “ licentiousness” & “dissolute”:
quality of acting out of bounds (negative) nao 閙 “ to upset”, “create havoc”:
upsetting of normal order as source power (liminal)
relevant Chinese terminology
熱鬧
李三太子 ( 哪吒 ) 閙天
鬧房熱鬧
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territorial deity controls territory
and worshippers with right of residence
communal representation & benefits
ascribed formal rites (state,
communal, Daoist, Buddhist)
charismatic deity helps whoever
worships personal requests &
benefits hence erratic nature
of benefits voluntary inspired rites
(shamans, mediums)
territorial : charismatic
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limen=border => liminal place as border & transition (see discussion
of Daoist ritual) liminal creatures live between here and
there =>can mediate between worlds (good), can come to
attack us (bad) origins:
◦ incomplete transition (hungry ghosts/demons 餓鬼 )
◦ non-humans changing form ◦ humans attaining life beyond life (immortals)
liminal position enables charisma
liminal as source of charisma
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violent death origin of most deities◦ bone/grave cults◦ plague deities
despised by early and later Daoist ritual traditions◦ as manifestations of stale qi◦ for their mediums
for some: routinization of charisma ◦ deity becomes territorial (may be local, socially
incomplete)◦ hagiography cleaned up◦ state support
ghosts turning charismatic deities
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Four Great Families ( 四大門 ): fox 狐 / 胡仙 , snake 柳仙 ( 蛇 ), weasel 黄仙 ( 黄鼠狼 ), hedgehog 白仙 ( 刺猬 )◦ sometimes the rat 灰仙 ( 老鼠 ) or others as fifth◦ live on margins of cultivated land◦ self-cultivation> ability of transforming into human shape◦ not to be confused with literary topos
each animal was unique member of overall type◦ family name same, personal name varies◦ often nr. + lang 郎
small shrines◦ irregular sightings as human/animal◦ could be male and female◦ privately worshipped for personal favours◦ even worshipped in yamen
charismatic power◦ erratic & vindicative deities◦ help with insecurity/contingency of events for worshippers (仙 ):
wealth, health, crops etc. (and its reverse!)◦ disapproved by state & outsiders (妖 ,精 )=>sexual accusations
underlying part of the fox stories in 聊齋志異◦ female seducers & male friends◦ fox from the fox cults
Four Great Families
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A survey of animal and other shrine deities in Jilin City
animal cults other shrine cults
Hu 胡 78 Earth God 23
Huang 黃 36 Mountain God 20
Liu 柳 4 Five Paths ( 五道 ) 15
Mang 莽 3
Bai 白 1
Five Great Household Immortals
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(grand total: 62 small shrines, mostly for several deities at a time)
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member of the Four Great Families possess people◦ possessed person starts to behave and talk strangely◦ identified as “possessed” (by “incensers” or experienced
people)◦ the deity communicates the issue or carries out a
punishment◦ explanatory value
“incensers” ( 香頭 )◦ initially possessed involuntarily ◦ need to identify immortal descending into them◦ tutor◦ initiation ritual◦ local network of customers
possession
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Wutong 五通 / Wuchang 五猖◦ Yangzi region in particulardeveloped from demonic
creatures, esp. “one legged mountain demon”◦ later seen as animal or animal transformation
deal with insecurities of life/money economy charisma => labelled licentious 淫
◦ state: heavily persecuted, esp. 18th century◦ local outside perception: sexual accusations
we know little about shamanic practice, except that they existed and functioned more or less like the “incensers”
Wutong
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esp. well-documented in Fujianese cultural zone (historically Fujian, Taiwan, SE Asia)
etymology◦ speculation on Austronesian roots word◦ jitong (!): Mandarin cultural imperialism◦ not necessarily young, mostly male
function◦ communication less clearly important◦ demonstrative of divine power and presence
examples:◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS8kWCjNI6k◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOkNPbdZ3kA◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DEUIxrwcUk
dangki 童乩
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analogous “incensers” in northern China male and female, personal deity, any age example:
◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8
regular mediums
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early example possession relatively well-documented in 真誥 a.o. works
(show pdf file?)◦ possession
眾眞並未降事 非降楊時也 自此後諸真共語耳 右南嶽夫人言
◦ record 定錄 喻書此。紫陽旨也。
◦ read passage p. 19 together
Maoshan-revelations
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Tang origins in signs 紫姑 -cult (acc. to 許地山 )=> divine writing in characters
common form of revelation & communication by Song◦ immortals (rarely well-known deities)◦ poetic communication◦ writing thru winnowing basket, wooden pencil etc.◦ writers and interpreters
practitioners ◦ originally mostly educated elite◦ prestige form of divine communication
example:◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8
spirit writing
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文昌化書 (Song: Terry Kleeman) early Qing onwards (why so late unclear to
me)◦ Lü Dongbin texts◦ combined with charitable movement
True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經
Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經
allowed creative fusion local (oral) culture & educated culture(s)
text production: creative force
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shamanic travel to Flower Gardens◦ world unborn child (pot flowers, red/white buds)◦ rituals for changing sex of future child & healing◦ prognostication future children
southern culture◦ Fujian/Taiwan◦ Guangdong◦ local cultures (Yao, Miao a.o.)
some research (Berthier; Taiwanese colleagues)
Flower Gardens
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travels thru underworld◦ relationship ritualized visits by specialists unclear◦ to investigate deceased or ill people who are
already partly in underworld lack of ethnographical descriptions
underworld
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not necessarily by shamans/mediums◦ Hong Xiuquan 洪秀全
shamans in Chinese context rarely have visions
mediums do have revelations◦ potential for scenario-revelations
scenarios most commonly moral rearmament either way: action requires further conditions to be
fulfilled◦ non-scenario more common
Taiwanese & HK cases provide solutions to people’s problems
revelations