Post on 17-Mar-2020
Organizational Behavior
Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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• Outcomes: Attitudes and Behaviors– Organizational Citizenship Behavior – Effort ≠ Performance– Job Satisfaction– Absenteeism– Turnover
• Managed by understanding and using– Motivation– Reward Systems– Job Design– Interpersonal skills– Group Dynamics
Organizational Behavior
– Stress– Commitment– Creativity– Safety and Accidents
– Individual Differences• Perceptions• Attributions• Attitude change• Values• Personality
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Employment as a social relation
• Attributions– Cognitive Dissonance– Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
• Social Comparisons: similarity (personal and situational)
• In-group biases– In-group versus Out-group distinctions– In-group distinctions
• Justice– Distributive Justice– Procedural Justice
• Reciprocity and Gift Exchange
Values and Values-based Management
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Managing through values
“A company’s universal commitment on how to interact with all stakeholders of its organization.”
Jerry HeneyAuthor of “Making Culture Pay”
“Values describe how we want to operate, on a day-to-day basis, as we peruse our vision.”
Peter SengeAuthor of “The Fifth Discipline”
Adapted from PricewaterhouseCoopers (Brown, 2002) presentation
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Managing through values
• Values are a beacon for the company’s decision-making process
• Values determine how a company behaves in uncertain times
• Every organization has values, whether purposefully selected, nurtured and developed or allowed to develop through unintended neglect
Adapted from PricewaterhouseCoopers (Brown, 2002) presentation
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Contributions of values-based cultures
• Attract and retain star performers• Guide and inspire employee decisions• Provide fixed points of reference and stability during
periods of great change and crisis• Align employees with diverse interests and backgrounds• Provides an “emotional contract” beyond the written
employee/employer contract• Export what the organization stands for to customers and
potential employees
Most effective when aligned with a powerful strategy
(Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003)
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Attraction-Selection-Attrition
Selection
Attrition
Attraction
OrganizationalDifferences
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Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Values Attitudes Behaviors
ContextualConstraints
Beliefs
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Values
• Basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.”
• A judgmental element in that they carry the individual’s idea of what is right, good, or desirable.
• Value System -- a hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.
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Types of values
• Terminal Values (“end states of existence”) – values that reflect a desirable end-state in life. Goals a person would like to achieve in life.
• Instrumental Values (“modes of conduct”) – values that reflect a mode of behavior or means to achieve terminal values.
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Terminal and instrumental values
• A comfortable life • An exciting life • A world at peace • A world of beauty and the arts • Equality (equal opportunity for all) • Family security • Freedom • Happiness • Inner harmony • Mature love • Salvation • Self-respect • Social recognition • True friendship • Wisdom
• Ambitious• Cheerful • Courageous • Forgiving • Helpful • Honest • Imaginative • Independent • Logical • Loving • Obedient • Polite • Responsible • Self-controlled
Terminal Values Instrumental Values
Rokeach Value Survey
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Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Values Attitudes Behaviors
ContextualConstraints
Beliefs
“Yo soy yo y mis circumstancias”José Ortega y Gasset
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•Physical Attributes– Gender– Race– Ethnic Origin– Age– Hair color – Height– Visual acuity– Color vision
•Intelligence– General “IQ”– Emotional “EQ”– Multiple intelligences
People Differ
•Skills and Abilities
– Computer skills
– Reading comprehension
– Typing
– Lifting
– Finger dexterity
•Personality– Conscientiousness
– Emotional Stability
– Agreeableness
– Extraversion
– Openness to Experience
•Nationality– Dutch
– Japanese
– Spanish
– Turkish
– Moroccan
•Religious Beliefs– Catholic
– Protestant
– Muslim
– Jewish
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Where do individual differences come from?
Nature(genes)
Nurture(learning)
• Swimming• Driving• Calculus
• Eye color• Gender
Where do these come from?
• Height• Math• Music• Sports
• Intelligence• Personality• Emotional Intelligence
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Hofstede's cultural dimensions
• Individualism/collectivism is
– the strength of the relation between an individual and other individuals in the society
– the degree to which people act as individuals rather than as members of a group
• Power distance
– the degree of power inequality among people that is considered to be normal
• Uncertainty avoidance
– how cultures seek to deal with the fact that the future is not perfectly predictable the degree to which people in a culture prefer structured over unstructured situations.
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Hofstede's cultural dimensions
• Masculinity-femininity
– the tendency of a culture to value characteristics that are traditionally defined as masculine or feminine
– Feminine cultures promote values that have traditionally been regarded as feminine, such as valuing relationships, helping, nurturing, and caring for the environment.
• Long-term/short-term orientation
– tendency of a culture to focus on long-term benefit or short-term outcomes
– example: Many Far Eastern countries with very long histories have a long-term orientation. The United States has a short term orientation, in which planning looks at the near future— in business, for instance, on a quarterly or yearly basis.
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Competencies: Definition
“An underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation”
Lyle Spencer and Signe Spencer (1993) “Competence at Work”
Other definitions use words like “attitude” and “behaviors” or “pattern of behaviors” to describe competencies.
Competencies focus on characteristics or behaviors that are identifiable as related to success on the job.
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Competencies: Where do they come from?
Competencies are used to discover those characteristics of a person that led to superior performance for specific jobs
Question being asked: Why, if all current employees had “passed”the selection tests, where some employees performing at an obviously superior performance level than others.
Not replacing the practice of using cognitive and job specific information; instead determining what additional personal characteristics led to superior job performance
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Competencies List
Table 1: Summary of the McBer Competency Dictionary (Spencer & Spencer, 1993)Achievement and Action Managerial • Achievement orientation • Developing others • Concern for order, quality and
accuracy • Directiveness: Assertiveness and use of
positional power • Initiative • Teamwork and cooperation • Information seeking • Team leadership Helping and Human Service Cognitive • Interpersonal understanding • Analytical thinking • Customer service orientation • Conceptual thinking • Technical/Professional/Managerial expertise Impact and Influence • Impact and influence Personal Effectiveness • Organizational awareness • Self-control • Relationship building • Self-confidence • Flexibility • Organizational commitment
Clusters in bold
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Personality at work...
“I can train a person to disassemble a phone; I can’t train her not
to get a bad attitude when she discovers that she’s expected to
come to work everyday when the rest of us are there. I can train a
worker to properly handle a PC board; I can’t train him to show
up for work sober or to respect authority.”
Richard L. Barclay, Barclay Enterprises, Inc.
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Big 5 dimensions and occupations
Sales Customer Service
Managers
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Openness to Experience
Skilled and Semi-skilled
.18
.09
.03
.10
.03
.17
.08
.11
.07
.10
.11
.08
-.03
.08
-.02
.10
.06
.06
.00
-.01
Correlations with Job Performance
(Hurtz & Donovan, 2000)
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Extroversion – Introversion– Where you get your energy
• Judging – Perceiving– How you orientate to the world – Planning/order vs. spontaneous/keep options open
• Sensing – Intuition– How you prefer to take in information – Facts/reality vs. possibilities
• Thinking – Feeling – How you prefer to make decisions – Logical consequences vs. personal/empathetic
Results in 16 possible personality “types”
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“All companies would benefit from hiring smarter people, and IQ matters
in all jobs, including sweeping up the place after the programmers go
home.”Daniel Seligam, Fortune editor
Studies done over the last 85 years indicate that tests of intelligence
consistently predict job performance well... The average correlation
coefficients obtained was .47 which is substantially higher than other
human characteristics.
Orlando Behling, Academy of Management Executive 1998
Intelligence at work...
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“But when I calculated the ratio of technical skills, IQ, and
emotional intelligence as ingredients of excellent
performance, emotional intelligence proved to be twice as
important as the other of jobs at all levels.”
Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”
The importance of Emotional Intelligence
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“When I compared star performers with average ones in
senior leadership positions, nearly 90% of the difference in
their profiles was attributable to emotional intelligence
factors rather than cognitive abilities.”
Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”
The importance of Emotional Intelligence
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Recognition
Regulation
SelfPersonal Competence
Self-Awareness• Emotional self-awareness• Accurate self-awareness• Self-confidence
Self-Management• Self-control• Trustworthiness• Conscientiousness• Adaptability• Achievement drive• Initative
OtherSocial Competence
Social Awareness• Empathy• Service Orientation• Organizational Awareness
Relationship Management• Developing others• Influence• Communication• Conflict management• Leadership• Change catalyst• Building bonds• Teamwork & collaboration
A Framework of Emotional Competencies
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“It would be foolish to assert that good-old-fashioned IQ and
technical ability are not important ingredients in strong
leadership. But the recipe would not be complete without
emotional intelligence. It was once thought that the
components of emotional intelligence were ‘nice to have’ in
business leaders. But now we know that , for the sake of
performance, these are ingredients that leaders ‘need to
have.’”
Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”
The importance of Emotional Intelligence
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Can Emotional Intelligence be learned?
“To enhance emotional intelligence, organizations must
refocus on their training to include the limbic system.
They must help people break old behavioral habits and
establish new ones. That not only takes much more time
than conventional training programs, it also requires an
individualized approach.”
Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”
The BIG EQ Question...
Organizational Behavior
Session Two: Perceptions, Attributions and Communications
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
Attitudes
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2/3/2005
Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Values Attitudes Behaviors
ContextualConstraints
Beliefs
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Theory of Planned Behavior
BehavioralBeliefs
Attitude toward the
Behavior
NormativeBeliefs
ControlBeliefs
SubjectiveNorm
Perceived Behavioral
Control
Intention to Behave Behavior
ActualBehavioral
Control
(Ajzen, 2002)
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Components of an attitude
• Cognitive Component– Thoughts and knowledge
• Affective Component– Moods, emotions, feelings felt
• Behavioral Component– How you react or behave
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Attitude formation
• Attitudes are formed from…– Direct experience
– Exposure to objects (people, places, things, ideas)
– Instrumental Conditioning
– Social Learning
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Attitude strength - “Non-attitudes”
• Responses to an item on an attitude survey even though the attitude does not really exist – prior
• Direct and behavioral experience increases “strength” of attitude
– more accessible from memory– more likely to influence later behavior– more resistance to change
• The attitude of two people who respond the same to an attitude survey may differ in their strength (likelihood of influencing behavior)
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Attitude strength - Accessibility
• Selective processing– Accessibility of any attitude (or evaluation) that is recalled
from memory upon encountering a target temporarily affects subsequent processing (or interpretations –immediate perceptions congruent with the attitude)
• Guides behavior– Accessibility also affects subsequent behavior towards the
object (e.g., product purchase studies)
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Attitude: Pros and cons
• Managers (or others) for whom decision-making is relatively automated, as a result of holding strong attitudes, are able to devote more cognitive energy to more serious and appropriate stressors.
• Is this always wise?
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Job Satisfaction
• A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience
• Does it relate to better job performance?
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CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICLALSTATES
MOTIVATING POTENTIALSCORE
• High Internal Motivation
• High “Growth” Satisfaction
• High General Job Satisfaction
• High Work Effectiveness
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Experienced Meaningfulness
AutonomyExperienced
Responsibility for Outcomes
Feedback from Job
Knowledge of the Actual
Results
Moderators1. Knowledge & Skill2. Growth Need Strength3. “Context” Satisfaction
(Hackman & Oldman, 1980)Job Characteristics Model and Job Diagnostic Survey
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Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCBs)
• “…discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promote the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988)
– Altruism -- the helping of an individual coworker on a task– Courtesy -- alerting others in the organization about changes that
may affect their work– Conscientiousness -- carrying out one’s duties beyond the
minimum requirements– Sportsmanship -- refraining from complaining about trivial
matters, and – Civic virtue -- participating in the governance of the organization
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Theory of Planned Behavior
BehavioralBeliefs
Attitude toward the
Behavior
NormativeBeliefs
ControlBeliefs
SubjectiveNorm
Perceived Behavioral
Control
Intention to Behave OCBs
ActualBehavioral
Control
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Organizational Commitment
• Individuals act instinctively to benefit the organization
• Increases the willingness to help (OCBs)
• Increases the organization’s ability to adapt to unforeseeable occurrences
• Employees less likely to be absent from work
• Employees have longer job tenure
• Employees tend to work harder and perform better
(Dressler, 1999)
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3 Types of Commitment
• Continuance Commitment– I stay because I have no alternative– Functional Value (What does the organization do for me)
• Normative Commitment– I stay because I think I ought to stay– Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)
• Affective Commitment– I stay because I want to stay– Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)
– Self-expression Value (What does this organization say about me)
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Three ways employees can value their jobs
• Functional Value (What does the organization do for me)
– Nature of the job, organizational structure, conditions of the job– Compensation and benefits
• Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)
– Alignment of personal values and the organizations– Pride of participating in a good cause– Social Strategy– Self-development
• Self-expression Value (What does this organization say about me)
– The organization helps me project a self-image that I desire
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Identity Theory
• Impression management is “market research”– People seek to define and understand themselves through
interaction
– Test out their values, goals, etc. as compared to the situation (e.g., others, organizations, etc.)
• “Reference others” effect the way people behave and identify themselves – Membership
– For example, religion, clubs, occupation
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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• Attractiveness of the organization identity– contributes to self-esteem, self-consistency and self-
distinctiveness
– extent of contact with the organization and the visibility of membership
• Self-concept is enhanced if the organization image is “legitimate”– culturally shared definitions, norms, values, etc. of the
embedding culture
Identifying with an Organization
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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• Salience– the extent to which a schema is active in working memory
• Accessibility– the ease to which a schema is brought into working memory by
external cues
• Salience and Accessibility are independent of Attraction
Identifying with an Organization
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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• Salience– Providing many opportunities for the organization to be “on their
mind”
• Accessibility– Store new information in Long Term Memory (LTM)
– Categorized and connected to other information stored in LTM
– More accessible when stored with and connected to “well learned” & easily accessible information
Identifying with an Organization
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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1. Organizational identity cueing– Organization images in communications
• Ads, promotions, newsletters
• Adding people information and green information in annual reports
– Can make different messages salient• Exemplars - we are the best
- Southwest Airlines: THE Low Cost Airlines
• Values - here is what we stand for- Saturn is built on teamwork- Ben & Jerry’s focused on social and environmental responsibility
Increasing Salience & Accessibility
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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2. Increase visibility of employee organizational affiliations
– Showing and using employees in commercials– A person’s self-concept can be enhanced or damaged by others’
awareness of his/her affiliation with the organization
3. Increased interactions with organization in sponsored groups or settings
– Simple interaction effects attractiveness & identity – Builds and reinforces common interests – Increases the expectation of future interactions
Increasing Salience & Accessibility
Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review
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Identifying with an Organization
• What results– Moves from Exchange Relationship to Internalization (or
community) Relationship
– Increases the mutual investment of employees
– Increases trust, support of goals and want to continued relationship
– Attribution Theory: In-group versus Out-group
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Theory of Planned Behavior
BehavioralBeliefs
Attitude toward the
Behavior
NormativeBeliefs
ControlBeliefs
SubjectiveNorm
Perceived Behavioral
Control
Intention to Behave OCBs
ActualBehavioral
Control
Perceptions, Attributions, and Communication
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Factors in the Perceiver•Attitudes•Motives•Interests•Experience•Expectations
Factors in the situation•Time•Work setting•Social setting
Factors in the target•Novelty•Motion•Sounds•Size•Background•Proximity
Perception
Factors that influence perceptions
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Prentice Hall, 2001
Attribution of Cause
InterpretationObservation
Attribution Attribution Theory andTheory andIndividualIndividualBehaviorBehavior
ExternalExternal
ExternalExternal
InternalInternal
InternalInternal
InternalInternal
ExternalExternal
DistinctivenessDistinctiveness
ConsensusConsensus
ConsistencyConsistencyHighHigh
LowLow
HighHigh
LowLow
HighHigh
LowLow
Attributions
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Biases
• Fundamental Attribution Error– Internal attributions of others
• Self-serving bias– Internal attributions of one’s own success
– External attributions of failure
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Prentice Hall, 2001
Frequently Used Shortcuts to Judge Others
• Halo effect
• Selective perception
• Projection
• Stereotyping
• Contrast effect
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• “Clever Hans” the wonderhorse.
• Related to “Hawthorne Effect” identified by Elton Mayo
• Key Principles– We form certain expectations of people or events
– We communicate those expectations with various cues.
– People tend to respond to these cues by adjusting their behavior to match them.
– The result is that the original expectation becomes true.
– This creates a circle of self-fulfilling prophecies
Self-fulfilling prophecy: The Pygmalion effect
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Prentice Hall, 2001
• Employment interview– Hiring managers become “responsible”
• Performance expectations
• Performance evaluation– Promotions
• Employee effort– Positive and supportive feedback
– Risk-taking supported
• Employee loyalty– Project assignments
Self in Organizations
Organizational Behavior
Session Three: Motivation
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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• Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained
• Delegation without constant supervision
• Employees can become self-motivated
• Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy customers
Why is motivation important
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I. Need-Motive-Value theories
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
III. Reinforcement theory (Operant Conditioning)
II. Cognitive approaches:- Expectancy Theory
- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison
- Goal Setting Theory
Major Theories of Motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-actualization Needs
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Self-actualization involves hard work
“The trouble with most… is that it seems they have in the back of their heads some notion of self-actualization as a kind of lightening stroke
which will hit them on the head suddenly without their doing anything about it. They all seem to want to wait passively for it to happen without any effort on their part. Furthermore, I think that practically all of them
have tended unconsciously to define self-actualization in terms of the getting rid of all inhibitions and controls in favor of complete spontaneity
and impulsivity. My impatience has been largely because of this… that they have no stubbornness, no persistence, no frustration tolerance, etc.”
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Existence Needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Relatedness Needs
Growth Needs
Nee
dPr
ogre
ssio
n
Nee
dRe
gres
sion
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Herzberg’s two-factor theory
• Job satisfaction is equivalent to being motivated and assumptionthat the happy worker is a productive worker
• Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants
– Motivators
– Hygiene
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• Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene Factors (Job Environment Factors)
– Pay, fringe benefits
– Working conditions
– Quality of supervision
– Interpersonal relations
• Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors (Job Content Factors)
– Work itself, responsibility
– Advancement
– Recognition
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
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Contributions• First to argue that job
content/job design was important
• Job enrichment as a motivational strategy
• Model appealing, easy to understand
Criticisms• Some individual
differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator
• Assumes satisfaction = motivation
• May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias
Assessment of Herzberg’s two-factor theory
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Maslow’s Alderfer’s ERG Herzberg’s 2-factor Hierarchy Theory Theory
Self-Actualization Growth
Motivator Esteem
Belonging Relatedness
Security Hygiene
Physiological Existence
Overview of need theories
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INDIVIDUAL NEED WORK PREFERENCES JOB EXAMPLE
High need for achievement
High need for affiliation
High need for power
- Individual responsibility
- Challenging but achievable goals
- Feedback on performance
- Interpersonal relationships
- Opportunities to communicate
- Control over other persons
- Attention
- Recognition
Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn individual bonus
Customer service representative; member of work unit subject to group wage bonus plan
Formal position of supervisory responsibility; appointment as head of special task force or committee
McClelland’s theory of social motives
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Need-motive-value theories
• Common Assumptions
– Motivation originates from “within”
– We seek out situations that can satisfy our needs
– To motivate others, we must provide opportunities to satisfy their needs
• Differences
– Number and nature of basic needs
– Origin of needs
– Sequencing and timing of activation
– Consequences of fulfillment
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Implications of need theories
• Employees will be motivated to satisfy their needs. Therefore…
– If needs are assumed to differ:
• Match employees to situations
• For example, select leaders with high nPower
– If needs are assumed to be common:
• Design jobs to satisfy basic needs
• For example, job enrichment
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Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldman, 1980)
CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICLALSTATES
MOTIVATING POTENTIALSCORE
• High Internal
Motivation
• High “Growth”
Satisfaction
• High General Job
Satisfaction
• High Work
Effectiveness
Experienced Meaningfulness
Experienced Responsibility for
Outcomes
Knowledge of the Actual Results
1. Knowledge & Skill2. Growth Need Strength3. “Context” Satisfaction
Feedback from Job
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Moderators
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Reinforcement theory (Operant conditioning)
• B. F. Skinner
• Principles of reinforcement
– Behavior is a function of its consequences
– Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated
– Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to be avoided
– The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key
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Operant conditioning: Some key concepts
• Contingency
– Consequences must depend on the behavior
• Discriminative stimuli
– Cues that signal when the contingency is in effect
• Scheduling
– Fixed or variable schedules based on response frequency (ratio) or time (interval)
• Shaping
– Reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior
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• Motivation is a function of the environment
– Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or cognitions.
– Managers can design work environment to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors & weaken undesired behaviors.
• Social learning theory
– Allows for cognitions in that people can observe rewards and punishments applied to others.
Reinforcement theory
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Reinforcement mechanisms
• To increase the frequency of a response, use:
– Contingent positive reinforcement
– Contingent negative reinforcement
• To decrease the frequency of a response, use:
– Extinction
– Punishment
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Number of behaviors
(ratio)
Passage of time
(interval)
Fixed RatioPiece rate
Variable RatioDoor to door sale
Fixed IntervalWeekly Paycheck
Variable IntervalOccasional praise by boss
Fixed Variable
Spacing or timing of Reinforcer
Bas
is f
or d
eter
min
ing
freq
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f re
info
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Schedules of reinforcement
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• Based on passage of time– Fixed Interval - Reinforcer given after set period of time
Example: Weekly pay
– Variable Interval - Reinforcer given randomly in time Example: Surprise bonus based on time
• Based on behavior exhibited by the employee/team– Fixed Ratio - Reinforcers based on behaviors Example:
Piece rate
– Variable Ratio - Reinforcers randomly after behaviors. Example: A vacation to Hawaii for all employees after new contract landed.
Reinforcement schedules
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Common Criticisms
• Accurate but incomplete
– Does not explain what energizes behavior
– Does not account for individual differences (e.g., different responses to different reinforcers)
– Does not take the role of cognition into account
• Focuses on the use of extrinsic consequences
– Use of extrinsic rewards
– Pay can sometimes reduce intrinsic motivation
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Cognitive choice theories
• Expectancy theory (e.g., Vroom, 1964)
• Equity theory (e.g., Adams, 1965)
• Common assumptions
– People make conscious choices about how to behave
– To understand motivated behavior, we must understand how these choices are made
• the decision to expend effort
• the level of effort to exert
• how effort can be made to persist over time
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Vroom’s expectancy theory
• Basic Proposition
– Motivation is greatest when a person believes s/he has the ability to do something that has a high probability of leading to a desirable outcome
F = (E) x (ΣI x V)
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E PExpectancy
What is the probability that I can perform at the required
level if I try?
P OInstrumentality
What is the probability that my good performance will lead to outcomes?
ValenceWhat value do I place on the potential outcomes?
Effort Performance Outcomes
Vroom’s expectancy theory
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Relationship to reinforcement theory
• Similarity
– Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Key difference
– Perceived contingencies are more important than actual contingencies
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• Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed
– Provide tools, information, support, remove barriers
• Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance.
– Be aware of employee performance
– Differential rewards for performance
• Need to offer employees valued rewards
– High valences
– Individualized
Implications for managers
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Three relevant perceptions:
1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task (e.g., pay)2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a reference person
If: Outcomes Self Outcomes Reference Person
= Inputs Self Inputs Reference Person
Then equity exists
Equity theory
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Equity theory
• Basic assumptions
– People are motivated to maintain equity in exchange relationships
– Equity is assessed by making social comparisons
• Equity Os/Is = Or/Ir
• Underpayment inequity Os/Is < Or/Ir
• Overpayment inequity Os/Is > Or/Ir
• Reactions to inequality
– Tension (anger or guilt) – strength varies as a function of degree of inequity
– Attempt to reduce inequity
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Goal-setting theory
• Basic findings
– People assigned difficult and specific goals outperform those assigned easy, no, or ambiguous goals
• Reasoning behind goal-setting
– Direction - specific goals direct your focus to relevant activities
– Effort - need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven
– Persistence - specific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case without such goals
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Goal-setting
• Boundary conditions
– Acceptance of and/or commitment to the goal
• Setting difficult but realistic goals
• Allow participation in goal setting
– Feedback
– Incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic rewards)
• SMART goals
“Finding a Fit”
People for organizations and organizations for people
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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Purpose
• Provide some background and data on principle of Person and Organization Fit
• Discuss the importance of Person and Organization Fit to job applicants and recruiters
• Discuss the steps that job applicants and recruiters can take in order to reap the benefits of Person and Organization Fit
• Present a tool to assist job applicants in assessing their values, needs, interests and skills.
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Three Types of “Fit” (Cable & DeRue, 2002)
• Personal Values – Organizational Values Fit– When an employee’s values match the organization’s and
co-workers’ values
• Business Interests and Personal Needs –Opportunities & Rewards Fit– When an employee’s interests and needs match the rewards
and returns that the organization provides to the employee
• Business Abilities – Job Requirements Fit– When an employee’s abilities match the demands that the
work puts on them
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95
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Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)
• Personal Values – Organizational Values Fit– When an employee’s values match the organization’s values
and co-workers’ values
• Significant relationship with:– citizenship behavior
– turnover decisions
– perceived organizational support
– organizational identification
– job satisfaction
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96
2/3/2005
Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)
• Business Interests and Personal Needs –Opportunities & Rewards Fit– When an employee’s needs match the rewards and returns
that the organization provides to the employee
• Significant relationship with:– job satisfaction
– career satisfaction
– occupational commitment
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97
2/3/2005
Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)
• Business Abilities – Job Requirements Fit– When an employee’s abilities match the demands that the
work puts on them
• Significant relationship with:– perceived organizational support
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Recruiters
Encouraged to be open and honest about the requirements and opportunities for candidates - these first interactions are the primary anchors for “psychological contracts”
Realistic and valid information about job and organization:– blend of positive and negative information based on the true
nature of the focal position
– attempts to keep the applicants level of expectation about the job within reality
• reduces the chances of the applicants to be hit by “Reality Shock” - breaking of the psychological contract
• can lead to lower feelings of being deceived, lower absenteeism, lower turnover and increase satisfaction
Organizational Behavior
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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Leadership Pipeline
managing self
managing managers
business manager
enterprise manager
managing others
functional manager
group manager
passage one
passage three
passage five
passage two
passage four
passage six
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Passage One: From Managing Self to Managing Others
Individual Contributor• Skills
– Technical or Professional proficiency
– Team play
– Relationship building for personal benefits, personal results
– Using the company tools, processes and procedures
• Work Values
– Getting results through personal proficiency
– High quality technical or professional work
– Accept the company values
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Passage One: From Managing Self to Managing Others
First-line Manager• Skills
– Planning
– Job design
– Employee selection
– Delegation
– Performance monitoring
• Work Values
– Getting results through others
– Success of direct reports
– Managerial work and disciplines
– Success of unit
– Performance measurement
– Coaching and feedback
– Rewards and motivation
– Communication and climate setting
– Relationship building
– Acquisition of resources
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Passage Two: From Managing Others to Managing Managers
Managing Managers• What they should do
– Select and train first-line managers
– Holding first-line managers accountable for managerial work
– Deploying and redeploying resources among units
– Managing the boundaries that separate units
• Five signs of misplaced effort
– Difficulty delegating
– Poor performance management
– Failure to build strong team
– A single-minded focus on getting the work done
– Choosing clones over contributors
Managing up
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Misreading the relationship
• The relationship needs cooperation, dependability, and honesty in both directions
– Many employees fail to recognize how much their boss depends on them
– Many employees fail to see how much they depend on their boss for success
• Managers play a critical role of linking an individuals performance to the rest of the organization
– Many employees assume that bosses understand the situation and have all the information necessary
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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Managing a mutually dependent situation
• Have a good understanding of you and the other person
– Strengths & weaknesses
– Work styles
– Needs
• Use the information (above) to develop the relationship
– Compatible to both work styles
– Based on mutual expectations
– Meets the critical needs of both people
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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Things you should try to know about your boss
• Understand and appreciate your boss’s goals and pressures
– What are your boss’s organizational and personal objectives?
– What are your boss’s pressures – especially from his/her boss or peers?
– What is your boss’s preferred working style?
– What is your boss’s preferred communication method?
– Does your boss like or dislike conflict?
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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108
2/3/2005
Knowing oneself
• Gaining self-awareness and acting upon it
– Reflecting on past experiences both positive and negative
– Determine your basic emotional response to different situations
– Become aware of the types of situations in which you are likely to act in a “negative” or ineffective manner
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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Employee-Boss relationships
• The boss usually has more power (employee is more dependent on the boss)
– Boss’s decisions and action put more constraints on the employee than the other way around
– Employees can become frustrated or angry
– Employees can react with resentment and rebellious actions
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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Compatible work styles
• How bosses like to receive information
– Listeners
• Hear ideas and thoughts in real-time
• Speak in order to do analysis
• Start in-person and and then follow-up with memo
– Readers
• Read and study information before making decisions
• Analysis first, speak later
• Start with a memo and then follow-up in-person
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
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Compatible work styles (continued)
• Amount and of type information
– Continuous updates versus infrequent updates
– Details versus big picture
– Every boss needs to hear the bad news as well as good news. However, not all bosses receive bad news equally as well
• Good use of bosses time and resources
– Be sure to be “reasonable” with bosses time and resources
• Basically, if you can make your boss’s job easier by doing your job, then your relationship is likely to be good
Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR
Organizational Behavior
Session Six: Influence, Conformity and Group Processes
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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113
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Conformity
• Definition
– A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure
• Types of conformity
– Compliance
– Identification
– Internalization (or acceptance)
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Compliance
• Publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing.
• This term best describes the behavior of a person who is motivated to gain reward or avoid punishment.
• All organisms respond to rewards and punishments.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Identification
• As with compliance, do not behave in a particular way because such behavior is intrinsically satisfying.
• Adopt a particular behavior because it puts us in a satisfying relationship to the person or persons with whom we are identifying.
• Come to believe in the opinions and values that are adopted, though not very strongly.
• Want to be like some particular person.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Internalization
• Both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.
• This is the most permanent, deeply rooted response to social influence.
• Internalization is motivated by a desire to be right.
• If the person who provides the influence is perceived to be trustworthy and of good judgment, we accept the belief he or she advocates and we integrate it into our belief system.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Comparison of the three
• Compliance is the least enduring and has the least effect on theindividual, because people comply merely to gain reward or to avoid punishment.
• Rewards and punishments are very important means to get people to learn and to perform specific activities but are limited as techniques of social influence because they must be ever present to be effective - unless the individual discovers some additional reason for continuing the behavior.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Comparison of the three
• You will continue to hold beliefs similar to the significant other (SO) as long as s/he remains important to you and those beliefs are not challenged by counter-opinions that are more convincing.
• If the SO’s beliefs change or s/he becomes less important to you, your beliefs can change. They can also change if other people who are more important to you express different beliefs.
• The effect of identification can also be dissipated by a desire to be right.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Comparison of the three
• Internalization is the most permanent response to social influence because your motivation to be right is a powerful and self-sustaining force that does not depend on constant surveillance (as does compliance), or on your continued esteem for another person or group (as does identification).
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Comparison of the three
• Compliance
– the important component is reward power -the power of the influencer to dole out rewards and punishments.
• Identification
– the crucial component is attractiveness - the attractiveness of the person with whom we identify.
• Internalization
– the crucial component is credibility - the credibility of the person who supplies the information
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Classic Studies – Sherif Studies
• Sherif's studies of Norm formation
– 1936
– People looked at stationary light - and then formed a group consensus as to how far the light moved.
– Illustrated power of suggestibility. Later showed a suggestion could continue through five or more generations of participants.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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Classic Studies – Sherif Studies
012345678
Alone 1 2 3
Subject 1Subject 2Subject 3
Trails with other subjects
Esti
mat
ed o
f M
ovem
ent
(in
ches
)
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Classic Studies – Asch Studies
• Asch's studies of group pressure
– 1956
– Asch believed intelligent people would not conform when they could readily see the truth for themselves.
– Showed people lines - a third of the time subjects were willing to go against their better judgment and agree with the group.
– About 75% went with the group at least once.
http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden
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standard
comparisons
1 2 3
Classic Studies – Asch Studies
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125
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Classic Studies – Asch Studies
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Classic Studies – Asch Studies
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Classic Studies – Asch Studies
• Distortion of judgment– Most of the subjects that yielded concluded their own
perceptions were inaccurate. – Lacking confidence in their own observations, they reported
not what they saw but what they felt must be correct. • Distortion of action
– A number of subjects admitted that they had not reported what they had in fact seen.
– They said they had yielded so as not to appear different or stupid in the eyes of other group members.
• Distortion of perception– A number of subjects said they were not aware their estimates
had been distorted by the majority. – They came to see the rigged majority estimates as correct.
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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies
• Milgram's obedience experiments
– 1974
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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies
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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies
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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies
• Milgram's obedience experiments
– In Sherif and Asch studies, there was no explicit pressure to conform.
– Sixty-three percent went to the maximum shock level.
– These studies show compliance can take precedence over one's own moral senses.
– Fragmenting evil makes it even more effective.
– We tend to make the fundamental attribution error when looking at such things - but Milgram said, "The most fundamental lesson of our study is that ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process."
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remote
voice feedback
proximity
touch proximity
female participants
Bridgeport
N 40 40 40 40 40 40
Mean Maximum Voltage
405 367 312 268 370 315
Percentage Obedient Participants
65.0 62.5 40.0 30.0 65.0 47.5
Classic Studies – Milgram Studies
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Groups and Barriers to Independent Behavior
• Risk of disapproval from other group members• Lack of perceived alternatives• Fear of disrupting the group's operations
– People fear independence will hamper the attainment of group goals
• Absence of communication among group members– Lacking information that others might join in the
nonconforming action• No feeling of responsibility for group outcomes• A sense of powerlessness
– If a person feels that he cannot change the situation, he is unlikely to try anything new
– The apathy becomes self-fulfilling
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What Increases and Decreases Compliance
• Unanimity
• Group size
• Cohesiveness
• Status
• Self esteem
• Legitimacy of authority.
– When an "assistant" took over, compliance dropped to 20%
– Away from Yale, compliance dropped to 48%
• Closeness of authority.
– By telephone, compliance dropped to 25%
• Difficulty and ambiguity
• Guilt
• Culture• Publicity and surveillance• Prior commitment• Emotional distance of the victim
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Reactions to Deviance (non-conformity)
• The group can try to restore conformity
– How much does the deviant's behavior interfere
• The group can reject the deviant
– The member can be expelled
– The group may not invite the deviant back
– Psychological isolation
• The group can change its own position and move into line with the deviant's (minority influence)
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Minority Influence
• Consistency
– A consistent position is persuasive because it implies that the minority is clearheaded, confident, and purposive
• Self confidence
– Charismatic leaders tend to have an unshakable faith in their cause, utter confidence in their ability to succeed, and an ability to communicate this faith in clear and simple language.
• Defections from the majority
– Defectors are often more persuasive than those who have been with the minority position all along. Defections can often lead to a snowball effect.
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Social loafing
• Decreased motivation and effort when working in a group
– Particularly when task is additive (single group product)
– Realize own contributions cannot be identified
– As group size increases, responsibility decreases
– Culturally specific
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Reduce social loafing
• Increase identifiability of individual output
• Increasing commitment
• Increase importance of task
• Encourage persons that their contributions are unique
Organizational Behavior
Session Eight: Power and Leadership
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)
• Coercive power
• Reward power
• Legitimate power
• Referent power
• Expert power
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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)
• Coercive power– The power to force someone to do something against their will– Often physical although other threats may be used– Demonstrations of harm are often used– The power of dictators, despots and bullies– Its principal goal is compliance– Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments– Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the
peace
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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)
• Reward power – One of the main reasons we work is for the money– There are many more forms of reward -- anything we find
desirable can be a reward – Recall Reinforcement Theory and Expectancy Theory– The power to exchange what the power wants for what others
want– Rewards can also be used to punish when withheld
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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)
• Legitimate power – Power which is invested in a role
– Kings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power
– The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power – the face of “raw power’?
– Common trap: people in such roles can forget that people are obeying the position, not them
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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)
• Referent power – The power from another person liking you or wanting to be
like you – It is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all
celebrities (by definition) and local social leaders– Those with referent power can also use it for coercion --
social exclusion
• Expert power– Having knowledge and skill that someone else requires– The basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration,
including most companies under the principle of specialization
– Labor strikes and threatening to quit
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Power enhancers
• Scarcity– less available = more desirable
• Desirability– A negative form includes undesirable power, like punishment
• Skill– Some people have power but are not good at wielding it
• Impact– More impact = greater attention to it
• Acquisition cost– Sometimes power costs a great deal to acquire, such as expert power
• Burn rate– Power, when used, may be used up or it may retain its 'full strength'. – Threats of punishment and rewards; knowledge is power”
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LEADERSHIP
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
147
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
148
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
149
2/3/2005
Great Man Theory
• Assumptions– Leaders are born and not made– Great leaders will arise when there is a great need
• Description– Based on the study of people who were already great leaders
- often from the aristocracy. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.
– The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah.
Page
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2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
151
2/3/2005
Trait Theories
• Assumptions– People are born with inherited traits– Some traits are particularly suited to leadership– People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient)
combination of traits
• Description– Attention was on discovering these traits, often by studying
successful leaders– The underlying assumption that if other people could also be
found with these traits, then they, too, could also become greatleaders
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Trait Theory Example: Stogdill (1974)
Traits
• Assertive • Cooperative • Decisive • Dependable • Dominant • Energetic• Persistent • Self-confident • Tolerant of stress • Adaptable to situations • Alert to social environment • Ambitious/Achievement-orientated • Willing to assume responsibility
Skills
• Clever (intelligent) • Conceptually skilled • Creative • Diplomatic and tactful • Fluent in speaking • Knowledgeable about group task • Organized (administrative ability) • Persuasive • Socially skilled
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
154
2/3/2005
Behavioral Theories
• Assumptions– Leaders can be made, rather than are born
– Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior
• Description– Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or
capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do
– If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for others to act in the same way
• Discussion– This opens the floodgates to leadership development
Page
155
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
156
2/3/2005
Kurt Lewin's leadership styles (Lewin, 1939)
• Description: Three styles of leadership around decision-making
1. Autocratic– Takes decisions without consulting with others– Found that this caused the most level of discontent– When there is no need for input on the decision, where the
decision would not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected whether they were involved in the decision-making
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Kurt Lewin's leadership styles (Lewin, 1939)
2. Democratic– Involves others, although the final decision may vary from the
leader having the final say to facilitating consensus– Usually appreciated by the people, especially if they have been
used to autocratic decisions with which they disagreed– Problematic when there are a wide range of opinions and there is
no clear way of reaching an equitable final decision3. Laissez-Faire
– Minimize the leader's involvement in decision-making, allows people to make their own decisions, although they may still be responsible for the outcome
– Works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
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Michigan Studies (1950s)
• Task-oriented behavior• Relationship-oriented behavior• Participative leadership
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Michigan Studies (continued)
• Task-oriented behavior– Planning and scheduling work, coordinating activities, providing
necessary resources, and spent time guiding subordinates in setting task goals that were both challenging and achievable
• Relationship-oriented behavior– Effective managers also concentrated on their relationship with
their subordinates– More considerate, helpful and supportive of subordinates,
including helping them with their career and personal problems – Recognized effort with intrinsic as well as extrinsic reward– A hands-off form of supervision rather than close control– Set goals, provided guidelines and gave plenty of leeway as to
how the goals would be achieved
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Michigan Studies (continued)
• Participative leadership– Managing at the group level as well as individually
– For example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group decisions and problem-solving
– The manager is responsible for results and is not absolved of responsibility. May make final decisions that take recommendations from the team into account.
– The effect of participative leadership is to build a cohesive team which works together rather than a set of individuals.
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
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The Managerial Grid
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The Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1961)
Page
165
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
166
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)
• The Contingency Model recognizes that leaders have general behavioral tendencies and specifies situations where certain leaders (or behavioral dispositions) may be more effective than others
• Least Preferred Co-Worker – Think of a person with which you have worked and would
like least to work with again, and then to score the person on scales of positive factors (friendly, helpful, cheerful, etc.) and negative factors (unfriendly, unhelpful, gloomy, etc.).
– High LPC leader generally scores the other person as positive and a low LPC leader scores them as negative.
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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)
• Least Preferred Co-Worker – High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive
relationships and act in a supportive way, even prioritizing the relationship before the task
– Low LPC leaders put the task first and will turn to relationships only when they are satisfied with how the work is going
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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)
• Leader-Member Relations– the degree of mutual trust, respect and confidence between
the leader and the subordinates
• Task Structure– the degree to which the task at hand is low in multiplicity
and high in verifiability, specificity, and clarity
• Leader Position Power– the power inherent in the leader's position itself
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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)
• When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a “favorable situation”
• Low LPC leaders (task-motivated leaders) are most successful in either very favorable or very unfavorable situations
• High LPC leaders (relationship-motivated leaders) are most successful in an intermediate favorable situations
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TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
172
2/3/2005
Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, late 1960s)
• There an optimum way for leaders to adjust their behavior with different followers and increase their likelihood of success
• Leaders should adapt their style to follower 'maturity', based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks – Competence
– Motivation/Commitment
• There are four leadership styles that match the four combinations of high/low readiness and willingness.
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173
S3
S1S4
S2
Low Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior
High Directive and Low SupportiveBehavior
High Directive and High SupportiveBehavior
High Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior
DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)
DEVELOPED DEVELOPING
HIGH LOWMODERATE
D4 D1D2D3
DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOR
(High)
(High)(Low)
SUPPORTIVE
BEHAVIOR
Situ
atio
n
L
ead
er B
ehav
ior
“Rea
din
es”
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174
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Levels of Follower(s) Development
• D1 - “Enthusiastic Beginner”– Low Competence– High Commitment
• D2 - “Disillusioned Learner” – Some Competence– Low Commitment
• D3 - “Reluctant Contributor” – Moderate to High Competence– Variable Commitment
• D4 - “Peak Performer” – High Competence– High Commitment
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Another look
Task Oriented Relationship Oriented
Area of FreedomFor Subordinates
Area of AuthorityBy the Leader
leader makes & announces
decision
leader presents ideas, asks for
questions
leader presents problems, gets
suggestions, makes decision
leader permits subordinates to function
within limits set by leader
Leader-Dominant
Follower-Dominant
Page
176
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
177
2/3/2005
Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)
• Time– Immediate decision vs. ample time available
• Decision quality – Often important when there are many
alternatives– Also when there are serious implications for
selecting the best alternative• Decision acceptance
– Degree to which a follower accepts a decision made by a leader
– Leaders focus more on decision acceptance when decision quality is less important than process/implementation
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Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)
Determining Quality versus Acceptance
1. Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality of the decision?
2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?
3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficient information to make a high quality decision on your own?
4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined, clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)?
5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision?
6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem?
7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?
8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?
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2/3/2005
Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)
Five decision procedures
• Two autocratic– AI: Leader takes known information, then decides alone
– AII: Leader gets information from followers, then decides alone
• Two consultative– CI: Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to
ideas, then decides alone
– CII: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas, then decides alone
• One is group-based– GII: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, then
seeks and accepts consensus agreement
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Page
181
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
182
2/3/2005
Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)
• The way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy– Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go– Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there– Increasing the rewards along the route
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E PExpectancy
What is the probability that I can perform at the required
level if I try?
P OInstrumentality
What is the probability that my good performance will lead to outcomes?
ValenceWhat value do I place on the potential outcomes?
Effort Performance Outcomes
Motivation: Vroom’s expectancy theory
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184
2/3/2005
Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)
Approach depends on the situation• Directive leadership
– Specific advice and ground rules established and/or given
• Supportive leadership– Good relations are promoted and sensitivity to subordinates'
needs is shown
• Participative leadership– Decision making is based on consultation and information-
sharing
• Achievement-oriented leadership– Challenging goals are set and high performance is
encouraged while confidence is shown in the groups' ability
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185
2/3/2005
Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)
Page
186
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
187
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
188
2/3/2005
Role Theory
• Assumptions– People define roles for themselves & others – People form expectations about the roles that they & others play– People encourage others to act within the role expectations – People will act within the roles they adopt
• Description– We all have internal schemas about the role of leaders– We act as role senders, e.g., through the decisions we take upon
ourselves and the decisions we leave to the leader– In organizations, there is formal & informal information about
roles: ‘leadership values’, culture, training sessions, modeling by senior managers, etc.
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189
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Roles
• Description– People rapidly begin to meet the expectations they have about
the roles they take– In groups these are shared expectations of behavior– A trap of roles is that the role can literally take you over and you
can forget your real values and beliefs
• Research– Stanley Milgram’s effects of electric shock on learning– Philip Zimbardo’s prison guards and prisoners.
• the ‘guards’ soon became aggressive and threatening• the ‘prisoners’ became passive and withdrawn
• Role conflict – people have differing expectations of their leaders– leaders ideas vs. the others’ expectations– differing situations
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190
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
Other
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
191
2/3/2005
Charismatic Leadership
• Charismatic leaders, by force of their personal abilities, can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers
• Characteristics of charismatic leaders include:– High need for power
– High feelings of self-efficacy
– Conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs
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Charismatic Leadership (continued)
• Charismatic behaviors include:– Role modeling
– Image building
– Articulating goals
– Emphasizing high expectations
– Showing confidence
– Arousing follower motives
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Charismatic Leadership (continued)
• Pros and cons of charismatic leadership– Cons
– Emphasizes personalized power
– Leaders focus on themselves
– Pros
– Emphasizes socialized power
– Leaders empower followers
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Charismatic Leadership (continued)
• Conger and Kanungo’s three-stage charismatic leadership model.
– Stage 1: The leader critically evaluates the status quo
– Stage 2: The leaders formulates and articulates future
goals and a idealized future vision
– Stage 3: The leader shows how the goals and vision can
be achieved
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195
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
196
2/3/2005
Transactional & Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership– Involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for achieving
routine performance
– Leader-follower exchanges involve:
– Works through creating clear structures
– Social systems work best with a clear chain of command
– When things go wrong, the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding)
– Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place
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197
2/3/2005
Transactional & Transformational Leadership
• Transactional Leadership– The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a
person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable
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Transactional & Transformational Leadership
• Transformational leadership– Broaden and elevate their followers’ interests
– Generate awareness and acceptance of the group’s purposes and mission
– Stir their followers to look beyond their own self-interests to the good of others
– One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality
– When the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated
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2/3/2005
Dimensions of Transformational Leadership
• Charisma– Provides vision and a sense of mission; and instills pride, respect,
and trust in followers
• Inspiration– Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts;
expresses important purposes in simple ways
• Intellectual stimulation– Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving
• Individualized consideration– Provides personal attention, treats each employee individually,
and coaches and advises
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200
2/3/2005
TraitTheories
BehaviorTheories
SituationTheories
OtherIssues
Great Man
Trait ListsMichiganStudies
Leader Grid
ContingencyModel
Situational Model
Roles
CharismaticLeaders
Lewin’sLeader Styles
Normative Model
Path-goalTheory
TransformationalLeaders
Managers vs.Leaders
Page
201
2/3/2005
Management versus Leadership
• Management promotes stability or enables the organization to run smoothly
• Leadership promotes adaptive or useful changes• Persons in managerial positions may be involved
with both management and leadership• Both management and leadership are needed for
organizational success
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202
2/3/2005
Management versus Leadership
• Managers– Have subordinates
– Authoritarian, transactional style
– Work focus
– Seek comfort
• Leaders– Have followers
– Charismatic, transformational style
– People focus
– Seek risk
Change Management
Bill Collins, Ph.D.
Rotterdam School of Management
"If you want truly to understand something, try to change it."
- Kurt Lewin
Leading Change: John Kotter
Page
205
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Management versus Leadership
Management Leadership
• Planning & Budgeting– Establishing steps– Timetables– Allocating resources
• Organizing & Staffing – Establishing structure– Staffing and delegating– Providing policy
• Controlling & Problem-solving– Monitoring results– Identifying deviations from plans
• Establishing Direction– Developing a vision for future– Developing strategies for achieving
the vision
• Aligning People – Communicating direction in words
and deeds– Influence the creation of
teams/coalitions that understand vision
• Motivating & Inspiring– Energizing people to overcome
major political, bureaucratic and resource barriers
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206
2/3/2005
Resulting in different outcomes
“Management produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to consistently produce the short-term results expected by various stakeholders.”
Leadership produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change.”
Both are necessary during change periods. For example, acquisitions
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Kotter’s 8 stages for leading major change
1. Establishing a sense of urgency2. Creating the guiding coalition3. Developing a vision & strategy4. Communicating the change vision5. Empowering broad-based action6. Generating short-term wins7. Consolidating gains and producing more change8. Anchoring new approach in the culture
Leading Change: Kurt Lewin
Page
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Kurt Lewin’s model of change
Unfreeze Change Re-freeze
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210
2/3/2005
Lewin (1930s) and Kotter (1990)
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Generating short-term wins
Consolidating gains and producing more change
Change
Anchoring new approach in the culture
Re-freeze
Page
211
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Establishing a sense of urgency
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Change Re-freeze
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212
2/3/2005
Establishing a sense of urgency
• URGENCY - Implement a shared diagnosis– Don’t want to underestimate amount of needed
– Focus on present and future – what are the expected outcomes?
– Determine degree of change: Change readiness• Look at history of change within your organization
• Determine risks and gains
– Identify new knowledge, skills and competencies• Identify current skill and talent pool
• Identify gaps in current and future needs
• Identify methods of closing skill and talent gaps
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2/3/2005
Urgency: Creating earthquakes
Change Perceived as Unnecessary
Change Acceptance
Zone
Change Perceived as Unattainable
High Inertia High Stress
Acc
epta
nce
of
Ch
ange
Size of Identity Gapnarrow wide
Low
Hig
h
Reger, Mullane, Gustafson and DeMarie (1994)
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214
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Creating the guiding coalition
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Change Re-freeze
Page
215
2/3/2005
Creating the guiding coalition
• Guiding Coalition– Create a powerful cross-functional and cross-company team
– Right People• Strong position power, broad expertise and high credibility
• Know your champions and your barrier creators
• Leadership AND Management skills
– Tool for finding• Those things for you
• Those things against you
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2/3/2005
Force Field Analysis
Equilibrium
AB
C DE
UV
ZYW X
Perf
orm
ance
-
+
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217
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Change Readiness
Page
218
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RSM competency survey
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.43.2
3.0
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Com
mun
icat
ion
Per
suat
ion
Ethi
cal
Cus
tom
er/C
lient
Orie
ntat
ion
Stra
tegi
c & V
isio
nary
Thi
nkin
g
Res
pons
ibili
ty
Inte
rper
sona
l und
erst
andi
ng
Man
agin
g & D
evel
opin
g O
ther
s
Team
Lea
der
Res
ults
Orie
ntat
ion
Initi
ativ
e
Anal
ytic
al S
kills
/Pro
blem
Sol
ving
Team
wor
k & C
oope
ratio
n
Net
wor
king
Flex
ibili
ty &
Ada
ptab
ility
Self-
cont
rol
Sel
f-dev
elop
men
t
Man
agin
g Pro
ject
s an
d C
hang
e
Org
aniz
atio
nal K
now
ledg
e
Exte
rnal
Aw
aren
ess
Posi
tive
Sel
f-im
age
Man
agin
g Se
lf
Inno
vatio
n
Pos
ition
-Spe
cific
Exp
ertis
e
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RSM competency survey
4.3
3.93.7
3.5 3.4 3.33.1 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.9
2.82.7 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3
2.1 2.0
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Org
aniz
atio
nal K
now
ledg
e
Exte
rnal
Aw
aren
ess
Pos
ition
-Spe
cific
Exp
ertis
e
Sel
f-dev
elop
men
t
Cus
tom
er/C
lient
Orie
ntat
ion
Man
agin
g Pro
ject
s an
d C
hang
e
Res
ults
Orie
ntat
ion
Team
wor
k & C
oope
ratio
n
Com
mun
icat
ion
Man
agin
g & D
evel
opin
g O
ther
s
Net
wor
king
Man
agin
g Se
lf
Per
suat
ion
Res
pons
ibili
ty
Inte
rper
sona
l und
erst
andi
ng
Anal
ytic
al S
kills
/Pro
blem
Sol
ving
Initi
ativ
e
Team
Lea
der
Self-
cont
rol
Stra
tegi
c & V
isio
nary
Thi
nkin
g
Inno
vatio
n
Posi
tive
Sel
f-im
age
Flex
ibili
ty &
Ada
ptab
ility
Ethi
cal
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Developing a vision & strategy
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Change Re-freeze
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221
2/3/2005
Developing a vision & strategy
• Effective VISION– Create a unified strategy, mission, expected results, timeline
• Implement a shared diagnosis
• Gather information (and participation) throughout Vopak and acquired company (from key players and others)
– Characteristics• Imaginable
• Desirable
• Feasible
• Focused
• Flexible
• Communicable
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2/3/2005
Unfreeze: Climate and Culture
• “Employees’ values and beliefs (part of culture) influences their interpretations of organizational policies, practices and procedures (climate).”
• Top Management beliefs are a large part of the organizational culture– McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
• The nature of interpersonal relationships
• The nature of hierarchy
• The nature of work
• The focus of support and rewards
Schneider, Brief and Guzzo (1996)
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2/3/2005
What are your assumptions about people?
• Do you believe that people are trustworthy?
• Do you believe that people seek responsibility and accountability?
• Do you believe that people seek meaning in their work?
• Do you believe that people naturally want to learn?
• Do you believe that people don’t resist change but they resist being changed?
• Do you believe that people prefer work to being idle?
(Maslow on Management)
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224
2/3/2005
Communicating the change vision
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Change Re-freeze
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225
2/3/2005
Communicating the change vision
• COMMUNICATE– Determine key communication messages and methods
• Forest = Vision, strategy, mission, and expected outcomes
• Trees = e.g., Layoffs? - communicate fair treatment and business necessity
– Key elements• Simplicity
• Examples and stories
• Multiple forums
• Repetition
• Leadership by example
• Explanation of seeming inconsistencies
• Two-way communication
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226
2/3/2005
Basic Time Orientation in Messages
• Past– Exists to show past glories and successes
• Present– Counts for immediacy
• Future– Vision and ideas
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227
2/3/2005
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate - we can not consecrate - we can not hallow - this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us - that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain - that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom - and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, November 19, 1863
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228
2/3/2005
Empowering broad-based action
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Change Re-freeze
Page
229
2/3/2005
Empowering broad-based action
• EMPOWER others to act on vision (all levels)– Define roles & responsibilities to reach shared vision
– Set goals and measure performance: create accountability
– Develop methods for acquiring new knowledge, skills and competencies
– Align systems and structures with vision and strategy
– Provide training
– Manager roles• Managers remove obstacles
• Managers define and reinforce boundaries
• Managers support and champion new ideas and processes
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230
2/3/2005
Generating short-term wins
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Generating short-term wins
Change Re-freeze
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231
2/3/2005
Generating short-term wins
• Planning and creating WINS– Set goals and measure performance: create accountability– Rewarding participation and successful change– Celebrate wins (matching the corporate culture)– Consolidating changes and continuing change
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232
2/3/2005
Attitudes
Attitude
SubjectiveNorm
Intention to behave
Behavior
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233
2/3/2005
Theory of Reasoned Action
Attitude toward a behavior =
evaluation of the desirability of the consequences
beliefs about the consequences of behaving
X
Attitude toward a behavior
Subjective Norms(what others will think)
Intention to act =
+
Page
234
2/3/2005
Attitudes
Attitude
SubjectiveNorm
Intention to behave
Behavior
Page
235
2/3/2005
Attitudes
Attitude
SubjectiveNorm
Intention to behave
Behavior
PerceivedBehavioral
Control
Page
236
2/3/2005
Attitudes
Attitude
SubjectiveNorm
Intention to behave
Behavior
PerceivedBehavioral
ControlACCESSIBILITY
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237
2/3/2005
Attitude Change: Cognitive Redefinition
• Semantic redefinition– Words can mean something different from what
we had assumed• Cognitive broadening
– A concept can be much more broadly interpreted than what we had assumed
• New standards of judgment or evaluation– The anchors we used for judgment and
comparison are not absolute, and if we use a different anchor our scale of judgment shifts
• Where does this new information come from?– Role models, champions, mentors– Trial and error
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2/3/2005
Consolidating gains & producing more change
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Generating short-term wins
Consolidating gains and producing more change
Change Re-freeze
Page
239
2/3/2005
Consolidating gains & producing more change
• Producing CHANGE leads to more change– More change can be a sign of successful change
– Needing more help can be a sign of success
– LEADERSHIP from senior management
– Management & leadership from below
– Reduction of unnecessary interdependencies
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2/3/2005
Anchoring new approach in the culture
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Generating short-term wins
Consolidating gains and producing more change
Change
Anchoring new approach in the culture
Re-freeze
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241
2/3/2005
Anchoring new approach in the culture
• ANCHORING and stabilizing– Refreeze Institutionalizing new approaches
• Reinforcing and enabling the new approaches through HR processes:
- selecting and training employees
- designing new jobs and roles
- measuring and rewarding performance
- pay, promotion and succession
• Eliminating “that’s not my job” or “just let me do my job”
• Depends on results - proof that it works and is rewarded
• May involve turnover
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Summary
Unfreeze
Establishing a sense of urgency
Creating the guiding coalition
Developing a vision & strategy
Communicating the change vision
Empowering broad-based action
Generating short-term wins
Consolidating gains and producing more change
Change
Anchoring new approach in the culture
Re-freeze
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SelectionAttitude/fit, not skills
Interviews: employees & customers
Reward SystemCompressed pay
Non-monetary rewards
TrainingCulture and skills
Very specific to Southwest
Ownership: profit-sharingLong-term and psychic ownershipPuts strong emphasis on growth
Information SharingOpenness
EgalitarianismPerformance/cost metrics
Flexible deploymentBroad jobs
Limited work rules
StrategySimplicity (e.g., in pricing)Superior and fun service
Clear target marketHigh productivity
Alignment Alignment
Consistency
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Example Link between HR and OB
Human Resources
“What you reward is what you get”
- Jack Welch
Organizational Behavior
“How we think determines what we measure.”
- Albert Einstein
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