Post on 14-Jul-2020
If
Kai von Fintel (MIT)October 18, 2016 – Manchester CIDRAL Public Lecture
I am a semanticist. I work on meaning.
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“That’s just semantics!”
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1. Possible Worlds Semantics2. Conditional Sentences3. If-less Conditionals
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(1) A former meerkat expert at London Zoo has been orderedto pay compensation to a monkey handler she attackedwith a wine glass in a love spat over a llama-keeper.
[Associated Press, Oct. 14, 2015]
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The sentence “A former meerkat expert at London Zoo hasbeen ordered to pay compensation to a monkey handler sheattacked with a wine glass in a love spat over a llama-keeper.”
is true if
a former meerkat expert at London Zoo has been ordered topay compensation to a monkey handler she attacked with awine glass in a love spat over a llama-keeper.
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Meanings of sentences
- describe the world- distinguish between ways the world may be, matchingsome of them, not matching others
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“Ways the world may be” = possible worlds
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Assertions make claims about what the world is like.
Questions ask what the world is like.
Commands order changes in what the world is like.
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There are many ways the world may be.
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Language is a precision instrument to distinguish betweenmany possible ways the world may be.
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Our job as semanticists:
Reverse engineer this precision instrument.
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Meanings come about through a combination of
- individual elements of meaning- the hierarchical syntactic structure they occur in- principles of meaning composition- inferences about the situation an expression is used in- …
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Semantics is at the nexus of
- linguistics- philosophy- psychology/cognitive science- computer science
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Two (or three) kinds of elements of meaning:
- content words (chair, love, ponder, incandescent, …)- “function”/logical words (the, most, and, if )
- and maybe: structural configurations.
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Oh, those big little words!
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After cataloguing various ‘ improper’ senses of only, Ockhamremarks that
These are the senses, then, in which the exclusiveexpression can be taken improperly. And perhapsthere are still other senses in which it can be takenimproperly. But since they are not as widely used asthe ones we have dealt with, I will leave them to thespecialists.
“A glorious picture indeed: monasteries crammed to the spireswith specialists on only, laboring away on the fine points ofthe semantics of exclusive propositions. Those were the days!”(Larry Horn)
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So, with the throttling hands of death at strife,Ground he at grammar;Still, thro’ the rattle, parts of speech were rife:While he could stammerHe settled οτι’s business — let it be! —Properly based ουν —Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic δε,Dead from the waist down.
Robert Browning: “A Grammarian’s Funeral”
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…in this chapter we shall consider the word “the” inthe singular, and in the next chapter we shall considerthe word “the” in the plural. It may be thoughtexcessive to devote two chapters to one word, but tothe philosophical mathematician it is a word of verygreat importances: like Browning’s grammarian withthe enclitic δε, I would give the doctrine of this word ifI were “dead from the waist down” and not merely inprison.
Bertrand Russell: 1919, Introduction to MathematicalPhilosophy
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The word “if”, just two tiny lettersSays so much for something so smallThe biggest little word in existence;Never answers, just questions us all
If regrets were gold, I’d be rich as a queenIf teardrops were diamonds, how my face would gleamIf I’d loved you better, I wouldn’t be lonelyIf only, if only, if only
Dolly Parton, If Only
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If
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(2) If it had rained, I would have used an umbrella.
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- the if-clause sets up a hypothetical scenario- the consequent is used to characterize the scenario
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The world as it would have been like if it had rainedis a world where I used an umbrella.
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if p takes us to the world that is just like the actual world in allrespects other than that p is true (and whatever is needed tomake p true)
the consequent q is then used to describe the world that if ptook us to
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1.3 Variably Strict Conditionals
(A) VACUOUS TRUTH
(B) NON-VACUOUS TRUTH
(C) FALSITY- - OPPOSITE TRUE
(D) FALSITY - - OPPOSITE FALSE
FIGURE 3
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(3) If Caesar had fought the Korean War, he would have usedcatapults.
vs.
(4) If Caesar had fought the Korean War, he would have usednuclear weapons.
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(5) If kangaroos had no tails, they would topple over.
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What use are claims about other possible worlds?
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(6) If there was an earthquake tomorrow, this house wouldcollapse.
In a world just like ours (where the house is built the sameway, the same laws of physics apply, …) but where there is anearthquake, this house collapses.
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(6) If there was an earthquake tomorrow, this house wouldcollapse.
In a world just like ours (where the house is built the sameway, the same laws of physics apply, …) but where there is anearthquake, this house collapses.
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There are many kinds of conditionals, with subtle (or not sosubtle) differences in meaning.
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Prediction vs. Deduction:
(7) If Alex leaves before rush hour, she will be in the office ontime.
(8) If Alex is in the office, she left before rush hour.
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Open possibility vs. Counterfactual:
(9) If Alex leaves before rush hour, she will be in the office ontime.
(10) If Alex had left before rush hour, she would have been inthe office on time.
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Factual Conditionals:
(11) If you’re so smart, why are you at this boring lecture?
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Biscuit Conditionals:
(12) If Alex is hungry, there are granola bars in the car.
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Is it all about if?
In a world where there’s no if, could we express conditionalthoughts?
Are we just lucky to have “invented” if?
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Evans & Levinson:
Consider that instead of saying, “If the dog barks, thepostman may run away,” we could say: “The dog mightbark. The postman might run away.” In the formercase we have syntactic embedding. In the latter thesame message is conveyed, but the “embedding” is inthe discourse understanding – the semantics and thepragmatics, not the syntax. It is because pragmaticinference can deliver embedded understandings ofnon-embedded clauses that languages often differ inwhat syntactic embeddings they allow. For example,in Guugu Yimithirr there is no overt conditional – andconditionals are expressed in the way just outlined.
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(13) Alex might leave before rush hour. He would get there ontime.
(14) Alex might get hungry. There’s granola bars in the car.
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(15) Alex goes in there, he’ll get shot.
(16) Alex is in his office, he left early.
(17) You’re so smart, why don’t you do this yourself?
(18) You’re hungry, there’s pizza.
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(19) No pain, no gain.
(20) No shoes, no shirt, no service.
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(21) No shirt, no shoes, no problem.
(22) No shirt, no shoes, full service.
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(23) Shirt (and) shoes, service.
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So, we can express conditionals simply by juxtaposingantecedent and consequent.
Connecting two propositions into a conditional meaning is oneof the very few fundamental ways of connecting propositions.
And it’s the only one where the two propositions aren’t bothclaimed to be true of the actual world.
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(24) Louie sees you with the loot and he puts out a contracton you.
(25) You drink one more can of beer and I’m out of here.
(26) One more can of beer and I’m out of here.
(27) Ignore your homework and you will fail this class.
(28) You only have to look at him and he shies away in fear.
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Greek
(29) Othe
skilosdog
mumy
akuihears
keravnusthunder
keand
krivetehides
kato apounder
tothe
trapezitable
‘My dog hears thunder and hides under the table’
(30) EnaOne
lathosmistake
akomamore
keand
thawill
seyou
apolisofire
‘One more mistake and I will fire you’
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Palestinian Arabic
(31) Bet-talla’b-look.3sgm
fee-hain-her
wand
be-hmarrb-redden3sgm
wejh-oface-his
‘He looks at her and his face reddens’
(32) KamaanAnother
ghaltahmistake
wand
betorr-o-okb-fire.3-pl-you
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French
(33) ilhe
voitsees
sonhis
patronboss
etand
ilhe
s’enervegets nervous
(34) uneone
bierebeer
de plusmore
etand
nouswe
vousyou
expulseronsfire
‘One more beer and we will fire you’
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Albanian
(35) Mesuesi e-cl shikonThe teacher looks at him
dheand
aihe
fshihethides
nenunder
tavolinetable-the
(36) njeone
gabimmistake
dheand
dofut
te teyou
pushojfire
(nga(from
puna)work)
‘One mistake and I will fire you’
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Turkish (also Bangla, Hindi)
(37) *kadIn-lar-awoman-pl-dat
gülümse-mesmile
-si-‘ ing’-3.sg.poss
yetersufficient
veand
hemenimmediately
kendisinhe (logophoric pronoun, 3.sg)
-e-dat
tutcapture
-ul-(impers.) pass
-ur--aor
lar-3.pl.
int.: ‘It’s enough for him to smile at women and theyimmediately fall for him’
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(38) ??/*Birone
hatamistake
dahamore
veand
senyou (sg.)
-i-acc
iSwork
-in-2.sg.poss
-den-abl.
atthrow
-ar-aor.
-Im-1.sg
‘one more mistake and I’ll fire you from your job’
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(39) John is not here and he’s at home.̸= (If ) John’s not here, he’s at home.
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(40) a. One more can and I would have fired you.
b. *You had drunk one more can and I would have firedyou.
c. *Drink one more can and I would have fired you.
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(41) a. One more can and I would have fired you.
b. *You had drunk one more can and I would have firedyou.
c. *Drink one more can and I would have fired you.
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(42) ??You’re so smart and you should do it yourself.
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(43) !!You’re hungry and there’s biscuits on the sideboard.
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Finally, the type of sentence we’ve recently worked on:
(44) Drink one more can and I am out of here.
This has a conditional meaning. It’s a conjunction of animperative and a declarative consequent (IaD).
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Greek:
(45) FaeEat.IMP
enaone
apofrom
aftathese
keand
thaFUT
pethanisdie
mesa sewithin
2424
oreshours
‘Eat one of these and you will die within 24 hours’
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Palestinian Arabic:
(46) Ilmis-hatouchIMP-it
wand
b-tindamb-regret.2sgm
toolall
‘omr-aklife-your
‘Touch it and you will regret it the rest of your life’
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French:
(47) ignoreignore
tesyour
devoirshomework
etand
tuyou
échouerasfail-FUT
‘Ignore your homework and you will fail’
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Albanian:
(48) hajeeat
ketethis
dheand
doyou
tewill
vdeseshdie
brendawithin
2424
oreshhours
‘Eat this and you will die within 24 hours’
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Same exception: Turkish
(49) ??/*Cokmuch
CalISwork (imp.)
veand
baSarI-lIsuccess-with
ol-urbe-aor
-sun!-2.sg
‘Study hard and you’ll succeed’
(50) ??/*Evhome
Odev-inwork-2.sg.poss
-i-acc.
unutforget (imp.)
veand
baSarIsuccess
-sIz-without
ol-ur-sun!be-aor.-2.sg
‘Ignore your homework and you will fail’
Again, Bangla and Hindi work like Turkish: no IaDs!
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Our conclusions:
• Imperatives don’t directly contribute commands as theirmeaning.
• Their meaning is more minimal (kind of as minimal as onemore beer).
• The conditional thought pattern can use imperatives asantecedents.
• The command (and other) meanings of the imperative onits own arises from the way its meaning interacts with amodel of the goals of conversations. (But that’s a story foranother day.)
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• Conditionals are a pattern at the very core of grammar.• If … then is just one convenient way of expressing thepattern, but there are many others.
• Possible worlds semantics is the best framework forthinking about the meanings of conditional sentences.
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The logic of ordinary speech provides a field ofintellectual study unsurpassed in richness,complexity, and the power to absorb.
(P.F. Strawson)
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