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1(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2013
Syllabus
NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as isbeing done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has beenprepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Syllabus
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD v. NOEL
CANNING ET AL.
CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FORTHE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT
No. 12–1281. Argued January 13, 2014—Decided June 26, 2014
Respondent Noel Canning, a Pepsi-Cola distributor, asked the D. C.
Circuit to set aside an order of the National Labor Relations Board,
claiming that the Board lacked a quorum because three of the five
Board members had been invalidly appointed. The nominations of
the three members in question were pending in the Senate when it
passed a December 17, 2011, resolution providing for a series of “ pro
forma session[s],” with “no business . . . transacted,” every Tuesday
and Friday through January 20, 2012. S. J., 112th Cong., 1st Sess.,
923. Invoking the Recess Appointments Clause—which gives the
President the power “to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during
the Recess of the Senate,” Art. II, §2, cl. 3—the President appointedthe three members in question between the January 3 and January 6
pro forma sessions. Noel Canning argued primarily that the ap-
pointments were invalid because the 3-day adjournment between
those two sessions was not long enough to trigger the Recess Ap-
pointments Clause. The D. C. Circuit agreed that the appointments
fell outside the scope of the Clause, but on different grounds. It held
that the phrase “the recess,” as used in the Clause, does not include
intra-session recesses, and that the phrase “vacancies that may hap-
pen during the recess” applies only to vacancies that first come into
existence during a recess.
Held:
1. The Recess Appointments Clause empowers the President to fill
any existing vacancy during any recess—intra-session or inter-
session—of sufficient length. Pp. 5–33. (a) Two background considerations are relevant to the questions
here. First, the Recess Appointments Clause is a subsidiary method
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for appointing officers of the United States. The Founders intended
the norm to be the method of appointment in Article II, §2, cl. 2,
which requires Senate approval of Presidential nominations, at least
for principal officers. The Recess Appointments Clause reflects the
tension between the President’s continuous need for “the assistance
of subordinates,” Myers v. United States, 272 U. S. 52, 117, and the
Senate’s early practice of meeting for a single brief session each year.
The Clause should be interpreted as granting the President the pow-
er to make appointments during a recess but not offering the Presi-
dent the authority routinely to avoid the need for Senate confirma-
tion.
Second, in interpreting the Clause, the Court puts significant
weight upon historical practice. The longstanding “practice of the
government,” McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 401, can informthis Court’s determination of “what the law is” in a separation-of-
powers case, Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 176. See also, e.g.,
Mistretta v. United States, 488 U. S. 361, 401; The Pocket Veto Case,
279 U. S. 655, 689–690. There is a great deal of history to consider
here, for Presidents have made recess appointments since the begin-
ning of the Republic. Their frequency suggests that the Senate and
President have recognized that such appointments can be both neces-
sary and appropriate in certain circumstances. The Court, in inter-
preting the Clause for the first time, must hesitate to upset the com-
promises and working arrangements that the elected branches of
Government themselves have reached. Pp. 5–9.
(b) The phrase “ the recess of the Senate” applies to both inter-
session recess (i.e., breaks between formal sessions of the Senate) and
intra-session recesses (i.e., breaks in the midst of a formal session) ofsubstantial length. The constitutional text is ambiguous. Founding-
era dictionaries and usages show that the phrase “the recess” can en-
compass intra-session breaks. And this broader interpretation is
demanded by the purpose of the Clause, which is to allow the Presi-
dent to make appointments so as to ensure the continued functioning
of the Government while the Senate is away. The Senate is equally
away and unavailable to participate in the appointments process dur-
ing both an inter-session and an intra-session recess. History offers
further support for this interpretation. From the founding until the
Great Depression, every time the Senate took a substantial, non-
holiday intra-session recess, the President made recess appoint-
ments. President Andrew Johnson made the first documented intra-
session recess appointments in 1867 and 1868, and Presidents made
similar appointments in 1921 and 1929. Since 1929, and particularly
since the end of World War II, Congress has shortened its inter-
session breaks and taken longer and more frequent intra-session
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breaks; Presidents accordingly have made more intra-session recess
appointments. Meanwhile, the Senate has never taken any formal
action to deny the validity of intra-session recess appointments. In
1905, the Senate Judiciary Committee defined “the recess” as “the
period of time when the Senate” is absent and cannot “participate as
a body in making appointments,” S. Rep. No. 4389, 58th Cong., 3d
Sess., p. 2, and that functional definition encompasses both intra-
session and inter-session recesses. A 1940 law regulating the pay-
ment of recess appointees has also been interpreted functionally by
the Comptroller General (an officer of the Legislative Branch). In
sum, Presidents have made intra-session recess appointments for a
century and a half, and the Senate has never taken formal action to
oppose them. That practice is long enough to entitle it to “great
weight in a proper interpretation” of the constitutional provision.The Pocket Veto Case, supra, at 689.
The Clause does not say how long a recess must be in order to fall
within the Clause, but even the Solicitor General concedes that a 3-
day recess would be too short. The Adjournments Clause, Art. I, §5,
cl. 4, reflects the fact that a 3-day break is not a significant interrup-
tion of legislative business. A Senate recess that is so short that it
does not require the consent of the House under that Clause is not
long enough to trigger the President’s recess-appointment power.
Moreover, the Court has not found a single example of a recess ap-
pointment made during an intra-session recess that was shorter than
10 days. There are a few examples of inter-session recess appoint-
ments made during recesses of less than 10 days, but these are
anomalies. In light of historical practice, a recess of more than 3
days but less than 10 days is presumptively too short to fall withinthe Clause. The word “presumptively” leaves open the possibility
that a very unusual circumstance could demand the exercise of the
recess-appointment power during a shorter break. Pp. 9–21.
(c) The phrase “vacancies that may happen during the recess of
the Senate,” Art. II, §2, cl. 3, applies both to vacancies that first come
into existence during a recess and to vacancies that initially occur be-
fore a recess but continue to exist during the recess. Again, the text
is ambiguous. As Thomas Jefferson observed, the Clause is “certain-
ly susceptible of [two] constructions.” Letter to Wilson Cary Nicholas
(Jan. 26, 1802), in 36 Papers of Thomas Jefferson 433. It “may mean
‘vacancies that may happen to be’ or ‘may happen to fall’ ” during a
recess. Ibid. And, as Attorney General Wirt wrote in 1821, the
broader reading is more consonant with the “reason and spirit” of the
Clause. 1 Op. Atty. Gen. 632. The purpose of the Clause is to permit
the President, who is always acting to execute the law, to obtain the
assistance of subordinate officers while the Senate, which acts only in
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intervals, is unavailable to confirm them. If a vacancy arises too late
in the session for the President and Senate to have an opportunity to
select a replacement, the narrower reading could paralyze important
functions of the Federal Government, particularly at the time of the
founding. The broader interpretation ensures that offices needing to
be filled can be filled. It does raise a danger that the President may
attempt to use the recess-appointment power to circumvent the Sen-
ate’s advice and consent role. But the narrower interpretation risks
undermining constitutionally conferred powers more seriously and
more often. It would prevent a President from making any recess
appointment to fill a vacancy that arose before a recess, no matter
who the official, how dire the need, how uncontroversial the appoint-
ment, and how late in the session the office fell vacant.
Historical practice also strongly favors the broader interpretation.The tradition of applying the Clause to pre-recess vacancies dates at
least to President Madison. Nearly every Attorney General to con-
sider the question has approved the practice, and every President
since James Buchanan has made recess appointments to pre-existing
vacancies. It is a fair inference from the historical data that a large
proportion of recess appointments over our Nation’s history have
filled pre-recess vacancies. The Senate Judiciary Committee in 1863
did issue a report disagreeing with the broader interpretation, and
Congress passed a law known as the Pay Act prohibiting payment of
recess appointments to pre-recess vacancies soon after. However, the
Senate subsequently abandoned its hostility. In 1940, the Senate
amended the Pay Act to permit payment of recess appointees in cir-
cumstances that would be unconstitutional under the narrower in-
terpretation. In short, Presidents have made recess appointments topreexisting vacancies for two centuries, and the Senate as a body has
not countered this practice for nearly three-quarters of a century,
perhaps longer. The Court is reluctant to upset this traditional prac-
tice where doing so would seriously shrink the authority that Presi-
dents have believed existed and have exercised for so long. Pp. 21–
33.
2. For purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is
in session when it says that it is, provided that, under its own rules,
it retains the capacity to transact Senate business.
This standard is consistent with the Constitution’s broad delega-
tion of authority to the Senate to determine how and when to conduct
its business, as recognized by this Court’s precedents. See Art. I, §5,
cl. 2; Marshall Field & Co. v. Clark, 143 U. S. 649, 672; United States
v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 1, 5, 9. Although the Senate’s own determination
of when it is and is not in session should be given great weight, the
Court’s deference cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without
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the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it
so declares.
Under the standard set forth here, the Senate was in session dur-
ing the pro forma sessions at issue. It said it was in session, and
Senate rules make clear that the Senate retained the power to con-
duct business. The Senate could have conducted business simply by
passing a unanimous consent agreement. In fact, it did so; it passed
a bill by unanimous consent during its pro forma session on Decem-
ber 23, 2011. See 2011 S. J. 924; Pub. L. 112–78. The Court will not,
as the Solicitor General urges, engage in an in-depth factual apprais-
al of what the Senate actually did during its pro forma sessions in or-
der to determine whether it was in recess or in session for purposes of
the Recess Appointments Clause.
Because the Senate was in session during its pro forma sessions,the President made the recess appointments at issue during a 3-day
recess. Three days is too short a time to bring a recess within the
scope of the Clause, so the President lacked the authority to make
those appointments. Pp. 33–41.
705 F. 3d 490, affirmed.
BREYER, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which K ENNEDY ,
GINSBURG, SOTOMAYOR, and K AGAN, JJ., joined. SCALIA , J., filed an
opinion concurring in the judgment, in which ROBERTS, C. J., and
THOMAS and A LITO, JJ., joined.
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_________________
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1Cite as: 573 U. S. ____ (2014)
Opinion of the Court
NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in thepreliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested tonotify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in orderthat corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
No. 12 – 1281
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, PETITIONER
v. NOEL CANNING, ET AL.
ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT
[June 26, 2014]
JUSTICE BREYER delivered the opinion of the Court.
Ordinarily the President must obtain “the Advice and
Consent of the Senate” before appointing an “Office[r] of
the United States.” U. S. Const., Art. II, §2, cl. 2. But the
Recess Appointments Clause creates an exception. It
gives the President alone the power “to fill up all Vacan
cies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by
granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of
their next Session.” Art. II, §2, cl. 3. We here considerthree questions about the application of this Clause.
The first concerns the scope of the words “recess of the
Senate.” Does that phrase refer only to an inter-session
recess (i.e., a break between formal sessions of Congress),
or does it also include an intra-session recess, such as a
summer recess in the midst of a session? We conclude
that the Clause applies to both kinds of recess.
The second question concerns the scope of the words
“vacancies that may happen.” Does that phrase refer only
to vacancies that first come into existence during a recess,
or does it also include vacancies that arise prior to a recess
but continue to exist during the recess? We conclude that
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the Clause applies to both kinds of vacancy.
The third question concerns calculation of the length of
a “recess.” The President made the appointments here at
issue on January 4, 2012. At that time the Senate was in
recess pursuant to a December 17, 2011, resolution provid-
ing for a series of brief recesses punctuated by “ pro forma
session[s],” with “no business . . . transacted,” every Tues-
day and Friday through January 20, 2012. S. J., 112th
Cong., 1st Sess., 923 (2011) (hereinafter 2011 S. J.). In
calculating the length of a recess are we to ignore the pro
forma sessions, thereby treating the series of brief recesses
as a single, month-long recess? We conclude that wecannot ignore these pro forma sessions.
Our answer to the third question means that, when the
appointments before us took place, the Senate was in the
midst of a 3-day recess. Three days is too short a time to
bring a recess within the scope of the Clause. Thus we
conclude that the President lacked the power to make the
recess appointments here at issue.
I
The case before us arises out of a labor dispute. The
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) found that a
Pepsi-Cola distributor, Noel Canning, had unlawfully
refused to reduce to writing and execute a collective-
bargaining agreement with a labor union. The Board
ordered the distributor to execute the agreement and to
make employees whole for any losses. Noel Canning , 358
N. L. R. B. No. 4 (2012).
The Pepsi-Cola distributor subsequently asked the
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit to set
the Board’s order aside. It claimed that three of the five
Board members had been invalidly appointed, leaving the
Board without the three lawfully appointed members
necessary for it to act. See 29 U. S. C. §160(f) (providingfor judicial review); §153(a) (providing for a 5-member
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Board); §153(b) (providing for a 3-member quorum); New
Process Steel, L. P. v. NLRB, 560 U. S. 674, 687 – 688
(2010) (in the absence of a lawfully appointed quorum, the
Board cannot exercise its powers).
The three members in question were Sharon Block,
Richard Griffin, and Terence Flynn. In 2011 the President
had nominated each of them to the Board. As of January
2012, Flynn’s nomination had been pending in the Senate
awaiting confirmation for approximately a year. The
nominations of each of the other two had been pending for
a few weeks. On January 4, 2012, the President, invoking
the Recess Appointments Clause, appointed all three tothe Board.
The distributor argued that the Recess Appointments
Clause did not authorize those appointments. It pointed
out that on December 17, 2011, the Senate, by unanimous
consent, had adopted a resolution providing that it would
take a series of brief recesses beginning the following day.
See 2011 S. J. 923. Pursuant to that resolution, the Sen
ate held pro forma sessions every Tuesday and Friday
until it returned for ordinary business on January 23,
2012. Ibid.; 158 Cong. Rec. S1 – S11 (Jan. 3 – 20, 2012). The
President’s January 4 appointments were made betweenthe January 3 and January 6 pro forma sessions. In the
distributor’s view, each pro forma session terminated the
immediately preceding recess. Accordingly, the appoint
ments were made during a 3-day adjournment, which is
not long enough to trigger the Recess Appointments
Clause.
The Court of Appeals agreed that the appointments fell
outside the scope of the Clause. But the court set forth
different reasons. It held that the Clause’s words “the
recess of the Senate” do not include recesses that occur
within a formal session of Congress, i.e., intra-session
recesses. Rather those words apply only to recesses be-tween those formal sessions, i.e., inter-session recesses.
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Since the second session of the 112th Congress began on
January 3, 2012, the day before the President’s appoint-
ments, those appointments occurred during an intra-
session recess, and the appointments consequently fell
outside the scope of the Clause. 705 F. 3d 490, 499–507
(CADC 2013).
The Court of Appeals added that, in any event, the
phrase “vacancies that may happen during the recess”
applies only to vacancies that come into existence during a
recess. Id., at 507–512. The vacancies that Members
Block, Griffin, and Flynn were appointed to fill had arisen
before the beginning of the recess during which they wereappointed. For this reason too the President’s appoint-
ments were invalid. And, because the Board lacked a
quorum of validly appointed members when it issued its
order, the order was invalid. 29 U. S. C. §153(b); New
Process Steel, supra.
We granted the Solicitor General’s petition for certio-
rari. We asked the parties to address not only the Court of
Appeals’ interpretation of the Clause but also the distribu-
tor’s initial argument, namely, “[w]hether the President’s
recess-appointment power may be exercised when the
Senate is convening every three days in pro forma ses-sions.” 570 U. S. ___ (2013).
We shall answer all three questions presented. We
recognize that the President has nominated others to fill
the positions once occupied by Members Block, Griffin,
and Flynn, and that the Senate has confirmed these suc-
cessors. But, as the parties recognize, the fact that the
Board now unquestionably has a quorum does not moot
the controversy about the validity of the previously en-
tered Board order. And there are pending before us peti-
tions from decisions in other cases involving challenges to
the appointment of Board Member Craig Becker. The
President appointed Member Becker during an intra-session recess that was not punctuated by pro forma ses-
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sions, and the vacancy Becker filled had come into exist
ence prior to the recess. See Congressional Research
Service, H. Hogue, M. Carey, M. Greene, & M. Bearden,
The Noel Canning Decision and Recess Appointments
Made from 1981 – 2013, p. 28 (Feb. 4, 2013) (hereinaf
ter The Noel Canning Decision); NLRB, Members of
the NLRB since 1935, online at http://www.nlrb.gov/
who-we-are/board/members-nlrb-1935 (all Internet mate
rials as visited June 24, 2014, and available in Clerk of
Court’s case file). Other cases involving similar challenges
are also pending in the Courts of Appeals. E.g., NLRB v.
New Vista Nursing & Rehabilitation, No. 11 – 3440 etc.(CA3). Thus, we believe it is important to answer all three
questions that this case presents.
II
Before turning to the specific questions presented, we
shall mention two background considerations that we find
relevant to all three. First, the Recess Appointments
Clause sets forth a subsidiary, not a primary, method for
appointing officers of the United States. The immediately
preceding Clause — Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 —
provides the primary method of appointment. It says that
the President “shall nominate, and by and with the Advice
and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors,
other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme
Court, and all other Officers of the United States” (empha
sis added).
The Federalist Papers make clear that the Founders
intended this method of appointment, requiring Senate
approval, to be the norm (at least for principal officers).
Alexander Hamilton wrote that the Constitution vests the
power of nomination in the President alone because “one
man of discernment is better fitted to analise and estimate
the peculiar qualities adapted to particular offices, than abody of men of equal, or perhaps even of superior discern
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ment.” The Federalist No. 76, p. 510 (J. Cooke ed. 1961).
At the same time, the need to secure Senate approval
provides “an excellent check upon a spirit of favoritism in
the President, and would tend greatly to preventing the
appointment of unfit characters from State prejudice, from
family connection, from personal attachment, or from a
view to popularity.” Id., at 513. Hamilton further ex-
plained that the
“ordinary power of appointment is confided to the
President and Senate jointly, and can therefore only
be exercised during the session of the Senate; but as it
would have been improper to oblige this body to be
continually in session for the appointment of officers;
and as vacancies might happen in their recess, which
it might be necessary for the public service to fill
without delay, the succeeding clause is evidently in-
tended to authorise the President singly to make tem-
porary appointments.” Id., No. 67, at 455.
Thus the Recess Appointments Clause reflects the ten-
sion between, on the one hand, the President’s continuous
need for “the assistance of subordinates,” Myers v. United
States, 272 U. S. 52, 117 (1926), and, on the other, the
Senate’s practice, particularly during the Republic’s early
years, of meeting for a single brief session each year, see
Art. I, §4, cl. 2; Amdt. 20, §2 (requiring the Senate to
“assemble” only “once in every year”); 3 J. Story, Commen-
taries on the Constitution of the United States §1551, p.
410 (1833) (it would be “burthensome to the senate, and
expensive to the public” to require the Senate to be “per-
petually in session”). We seek to interpret the Clause as
granting the President the power to make appointments
during a recess but not offering the President the author-
ity routinely to avoid the need for Senate confirmation.
Second, in interpreting the Clause, we put significantweight upon historical practice. For one thing, the inter-
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pretive questions before us concern the allocation of power
between two elected branches of Government. Long ago
Chief Justice Marshall wrote that
“a doubtful question, one on which human reason may
pause, and the human judgment be suspended, in the
decision of which the great principles of liberty are not
concerned, but the respective powers of those who are
equally the representatives of the people, are to be ad-
justed; if not put at rest by the practice of the gov-
ernment, ought to receive a considerable impression
from that practice.” McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat.
316, 401 (1819).
And we later confirmed that “[l]ong settled and estab-
lished practice is a consideration of great weight in a
proper interpretation of constitutional provisions” regulat-
ing the relationship between Congress and the President.
The Pocket Veto Case, 279 U. S. 655, 689 (1929); see also
id., at 690 (“[A] practice of at least twenty years duration
‘on the part of the executive department, acquiesced in by
the legislative department, . . . is entitled to great regard
in determining the true construction of a constitutional
provision the phraseology of which is in any respect of
doubtful meaning’ ” (quoting State v. South Norwalk, 77
Conn. 257, 264, 58 A. 759, 761 (1904))).
We recognize, of course, that the separation of powers
can serve to safeguard individual liberty, Clinton v. City of
New York, 524 U. S. 417, 449–450 (1998) (K ENNEDY , J.,
concurring), and that it is the “duty of the judicial depart-
ment”—in a separation-of-powers case as in any other—“to
say what the law is,” Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137,
177 (1803). But it is equally true that the longstanding
“practice of the government,” McCulloch, supra, at 401,
can inform our determination of “what the law is,” Mar-
bury, supra, at 177.That principle is neither new nor controversial. As
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James Madison wrote, it “was foreseen at the birth of the
Constitution, that difficulties and differences of opinion
might occasionally arise in expounding terms & phrases
necessarily used in such a charter . . . and that it might
require a regular course of practice to liquidate & settle
the meaning of some of them.” Letter to Spencer Roane
(Sept. 2, 1819), in 8 Writings of James Madison 450 (G.
Hunt ed. 1908). And our cases have continually confirmed
Madison’s view. E.g., Mistretta v. United States, 488 U. S.
361, 401 (1989); Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 U. S. 654,
686 (1981); Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343
U. S. 579, 610–611 (1952) (Frankfurter, J., concurring);The Pocket Veto Case, supra, at 689–690; Ex parte Gross-
man, 267 U. S. 87, 118–119 (1925); United States v. Mid-
west Oil Co., 236 U. S. 459, 472–474 (1915); McPherson v.
Blacker, 146 U. S. 1, 27 (1892); McCulloch, supra; Stuart
v. Laird, 1 Cranch 299 (1803).
These precedents show that this Court has treated
practice as an important interpretive factor even when the
nature or longevity of that practice is subject to dispute,
and even when that practice began after the founding era.
See Mistretta, supra, 400–401 (“While these [practices]
spawned spirited discussion and frequent criticism, . . .‘traditional ways of conducting government . . . give mean-
ing’ to the Constitution” (quoting Youngstown, supra, at
610) (Frankfurter, J., concurring)); Regan, supra, at 684
(“[E]ven if the pre-1952 [practice] should be disregarded,
congressional acquiescence in [a practice] since that time
supports the President’s power to act here”); The Pocket
Veto Case, supra, at 689–690 (postfounding practice is
entitled to “great weight”); Grossman, supra, at 118–119
(postfounding practice “strongly sustains” a “construction”
of the Constitution).
There is a great deal of history to consider here. Presi-
dents have made recess appointments since the beginningof the Republic. Their frequency suggests that the Senate
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and President have recognized that recess appointments
can be both necessary and appropriate in certain circum
stances. We have not previously interpreted the Clause,
and, when doing so for the first time in more than 200
years, we must hesitate to upset the compromises and
working arrangements that the elected branches of Gov
ernment themselves have reached.
III
The first question concerns the scope of the phrase “the
recess of the Senate.” Art. II, §2, cl. 3 (emphasis added).
The Constitution provides for congressional electionsevery two years. And the 2-year life of each elected Con
gress typically consists of two formal 1-year sessions, each
separated from the next by an “inter-session recess.”
Congressional Research Service, H. Hogue, Recess Ap
pointments: Frequently Asked Questions 2 (2013). The
Senate or the House of Representatives announces an
inter-session recess by approving a resolution stating that
it will “adjourn sine die,” i.e., without specifying a date to
return (in which case Congress will reconvene when the
next formal session is scheduled to begin).
The Senate and the House also take breaks in the midst
of a session. The Senate or the House announces any such
“intra-session recess” by adopting a resolution stating that
it will “adjourn” to a fixed date, a few days or weeks or
even months later. All agree that the phrase “the recess of
the Senate” covers inter-session recesses. The question is
whether it includes intra-session recesses as well.
In our view, the phrase “the recess” includes an intra
session recess of substantial length. Its words taken
literally can refer to both types of recess. Founding-era
dictionaries define the word “recess,” much as we do today,
simply as “a period of cessation from usual work.” 13 The
Oxford English Dictionary 322 – 323 (2d ed. 1989) (hereinafter OED) (citing 18th- and 19th-century sources for that
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definition of “recess”); 2 N. Webster, An American Diction-
ary of the English Language (1828) (“[r]emission or sus-
pension of business or procedure”); 2 S. Johnson, A Dic-
tionary of the English Language 1602–1603 (4th ed. 1773)
(hereinafter Johnson) (same). The Founders themselves
used the word to refer to intra-session, as well as to inter-
session, breaks. See, e.g., 3 Records of the Federal Con-
vention of 1787, p. 76 (M. Farrand rev. 1966) (hereinafter
Farrand) (letter from George Washington to John Jay
using “the recess” to refer to an intra-session break of the
Constitutional Convention); id., at 191 (speech of Luther
Martin with a similar usage); 1 T. Jefferson, A Manualof Parliamentary Practice §LI, p. 165 (2d ed. 1812) (de-
scribing a “recess by adjournment” which did not end a
session).
We recognize that the word “the” in “the recess” might
suggest that the phrase refers to the single break separat-
ing formal sessions of Congress. That is because the word
“the” frequently (but not always) indicates “a particular
thing.” 2 Johnson 2003. But the word can also refer “to a
term used generically or universally.” 17 OED 879. The
Constitution, for example, directs the Senate to choose a
President pro tempore “in the Absence of the Vice-President.” Art. I, §3, cl. 5 (emphasis added). And the
Federalist Papers refer to the chief magistrate of an an-
cient Achaean league who “administered the government
in the recess of the Senate.” The Federalist No. 18, at 113
(J. Madison) (emphasis added). Reading “the” generically
in this way, there is no linguistic problem applying the
Clause’s phrase to both kinds of recess. And, in fact, the
phrase “the recess” was used to refer to intra-session
recesses at the time of the founding. See, e.g., 3 Farrand
76 (letter from Washington to Jay); New Jersey Legislative-
Council Journal, 5th Sess., 1st Sitting 70, 2d Sitting 9
(1781) (twice referring to a 4-month, intra-session breakas “the Recess”); see also Brief for Petitioner 14–16 (listing
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examples).
The constitutional text is thus ambiguous. And we
believe the Clause’s purpose demands the broader inter
pretation. The Clause gives the President authority to
make appointments during “the recess of the Senate” so
that the President can ensure the continued functioning of
the Federal Government when the Senate is away. The
Senate is equally away during both an inter-session and
an intra-session recess, and its capacity to participate in
the appointments process has nothing to do with the
words it uses to signal its departure.
History also offers strong support for the broad interpretation. We concede that pre-Civil War history is not help
ful. But it shows only that Congress generally took long
breaks between sessions, while taking no significant intra
session breaks at all (five times it took a break of a week
or so at Christmas). See Appendix A, infra. Obviously, if
there are no significant intra-session recesses, there will
be no intra-session recess appointments. In 1867 and
1868, Congress for the first time took substantial, non
holiday intra-session breaks, and President Andrew John
son made dozens of recess appointments. The Federal
Court of Claims upheld one of those specific appointments,writing “[w]e have no doubt that a vacancy occurring while
the Senate was thus temporarily adjourned” during the
“first session of the Fortieth Congress” was “legally filled
by appointment of the President alone.” Gould v. United
States, 19 Ct. Cl. 593, 595 – 596 (1884) (emphasis added).
Attorney General Evarts also issued three opinions con
cerning the constitutionality of President Johnson’s ap
pointments, and it apparently did not occur to him that
the distinction between intra-session and inter-session
recesses was significant. See 12 Op. Atty. Gen. 449 (1868);
12 Op. Atty. Gen. 455 (1868); 12 Op. Atty. Gen. 469 (1868).
Similarly, though the 40th Congress impeached PresidentJohnson on charges relating to his appointment power, he
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was not accused of violating the Constitution by mak-
ing intra-session recess appointments. Hartnett, Recess
Appointments of Article III Judges: Three Constitutional
Questions, 26 Cardozo L. Rev. 377, 409 (2005).
In all, between the founding and the Great Depression,
Congress took substantial intra-session breaks (other than
holiday breaks) in four years: 1867, 1868, 1921, and 1929.
Appendix A, infra. And in each of those years the Presi-
dent made intra-session recess appointments. See App. to
Brief for Petitioner 1a–11a.
Since 1929, and particularly since the end of World War
II, Congress has shortened its inter-session breaks as ithas taken longer and more frequent intra-session breaks;
Presidents have correspondingly made more intra-session
recess appointments. Indeed, if we include military ap-
pointments, Presidents have made thousands of intra-
session recess appointments. Id., at 11a–64a. President
Franklin Roosevelt, for example, commissioned Dwight
Eisenhower as a permanent Major General during an
intra-session recess; President Truman made Dean Ache-
son Under Secretary of State; and President George H. W.
Bush reappointed Alan Greenspan as Chairman of the
Federal Reserve Board. Id., at 11a, 12a, 40a. JUSTICESCALIA does not dispute any of these facts.
Not surprisingly, the publicly available opinions of
Presidential legal advisers that we have found are nearly
unanimous in determining that the Clause authorizes
these appointments. In 1921, for example, Attorney Gen-
eral Daugherty advised President Harding that he could
make intra-session recess appointments. He reasoned:
“If the President’s power of appointment is to be de-
feated because the Senate takes an adjournment to a
specified date, the painful and inevitable result will be
measurably to prevent the exercise of governmental
functions. I can not bring myself to believe that the
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framers of the Constitution ever intended such a ca
tastrophe to happen.” 33 Op. Atty. Gen. 20, 23.
We have found memoranda offering similar advice to
President Eisenhower and to every President from Carter
to the present. See 36 Opinion of Office of Legal Counsel
(Op. OLC) ___, ___ (2012), online at www.justice.gov/
olc/opiniondocslpro-forma-sessions-opinion.pdf; 25 Op.
OLC 182 (2001); 20 Op. OLC 124, 161 (1996); 16 Op. OLC
15 (1992); 13 Op. OLC 271 (1989); 6 Op. OLC 585, 586
(1982); 3 Op. OLC 314, 316 (1979); 41 Op. Atty. Gen. 463,
466 (1960).We must note one contrary opinion authored by Presi
dent Theodore Roosevelt’s Attorney General Philander
Knox. Knox advised the President that the Clause did not
cover a 19 – day intra-session Christmas recess. 23 Op.
Atty. Gen. 599 (1901). But in doing so he relied heavily
upon the use of the word “the,” a linguistic point that we
do not find determinative. See supra, at 10. And Knox all
but confessed that his interpretation ran contrary to the
basic purpose of the Clause. For it would permit the
Senate to adjourn for “several months,” to a fixed date,
and thereby “seriously curtail the President’s power of
making recess appointments.” 23 Op. Atty. Gen., at 603.Moreover, only three days before Knox gave his opinion,
the Solicitor of the Treasury came to the opposite conclu
sion. Reply Brief 7, n. 5. We therefore do not think Knox’s
isolated opinion can disturb the consensus advice within
the Executive Branch taking the opposite position.
What about the Senate? Since Presidents began making
intra-session recess appointments, individual Senators
have taken differing views about the proper definition of
“the recess.” See, e.g., 130 Cong. Rec. 23234 (1984) (reso
lution introduced by Senator Byrd urging limits on the
length of applicable intra-session recesses); Brief for Sen.Mitch McConnell et al. as Amici Curiae 26 (an intra
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session adjournment does not count as “the recess”); Brief
for Sen. Edward M. Kennedy as Amicus Curiae in Frank-
lin v. United States, O. T. 2004, No. 04–5858, p. 5 (same).
But neither the Senate considered as a body nor its com-
mittees, despite opportunities to express opposition to the
practice of intra-session recess appointments, has done so.
Rather, to the extent that the Senate or a Senate commit-
tee has expressed a view, that view has favored a func-
tional definition of “recess,” and a functional definition
encompasses intra-session recesses.
Most notably, in 1905 the Senate Committee on the
Judiciary objected strongly to President Theodore Roose-velt’s use of the Clause to make more than 160 recess
appointments during a “fictitious” inter-session recess.
S. Rep. No. 4389, 58th Cong., 3d Sess., p. 2 (hereinafter
1905 Senate Report). At noon on December 7, 1903, the
Senate President pro tempore had “declare[d]” a formal,
“extraordinary session” of the Senate “adjourned without
day,” and the next formal Senate session began immedi-
ately afterwards. 37 Cong. Rec. 544 (1903). President
Roosevelt made over 160 recess appointments during the
instantaneous inter-session interval. The Judiciary Com-
mittee, when stating its strong objection, defined “recess”in functional terms as
“the period of time when the Senate is not sitting in
regular or extraordinary session as a branch of the
Congress . . . ; when its members owe no duty of at-
tendance; when its Chamber is empty; when, because
of its absence, it can not receive communications from
the President or participate as a body in making ap-
pointments.” 1905 Senate Report, at 2 (emphasis
deleted).
That functional definition encompasses intra-session, as
well as inter-session, recesses. JUSTICE SCALIA is rightthat the 1905 Report did not specifically address the dis-
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tinction between inter-session and intra-session recesses.
But the animating principle of the Report—that “recess”
should be practically construed to mean a time when the
Senate is unavailable to participate in the appointments
process—is inconsistent with the formalistic approach that
JUSTICE SCALIA endorses.
Similarly, in 1940 the Senate helped to enact a law
regulating the payment of recess appointees, and the
Comptroller General of the United States has interpreted
that law functionally. An earlier 1863 statute had denied
pay to individuals appointed to fill up vacancies first
arising prior to the beginning of a recess. The SenateJudiciary Committee then believed that those vacancies
fell outside the scope of the Clause. See infra, at 30. In
1940, however, the Senate amended the law to permit
many of those recess appointees to be paid. Act of July 11,
54 Stat. 751. Interpreting the amendments in 1948, the
Comptroller General—who, unlike the Attorney General,
is an “officer of the Legislative Branch,” Bowsher v. Synar,
478 U. S. 714, 731 (1986)—wrote:
“I think it is clear that [the Pay Act amendments’]
primary purpose was to relieve ‘recess appointees’ of
the burden of serving without compensation duringperiods when the Senate is not actually sitting and is
not available to give its advice and consent in respect
to the appointment, irrespective of whether the recess
of the Senate is attributable to a final adjournment
sine die or to an adjournment to a specified date.” 28
Comp. Gen. 30, 37.
We recognize that the Senate cannot easily register
opposition as a body to every governmental action that
many, perhaps most, Senators oppose. But the Senate has
not been silent or passive regarding the meaning of the
Clause: A Senate Committee did register opposition toPresident Theodore Roosevelt’s use of the Clause, and the
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Senate as a whole has legislated in an effort to discourage
certain kinds of recess appointments. And yet we are not
aware of any formal action it has taken to call into ques-
tion the broad and functional definition of “recess” first
set out in the 1905 Senate Report and followed by the
Executive Branch since at least 1921. Nor has JUSTICE
SCALIA identified any. All the while, the President has
made countless recess appointments during intra-session
recesses.
The upshot is that restricting the Clause to inter-session
recesses would frustrate its purpose. It would make the
President’s recess-appointment power dependent on aformalistic distinction of Senate procedure. Moreover, the
President has consistently and frequently interpreted the
word “recess” to apply to intra-session recesses, and has
acted on that interpretation. The Senate as a body has
done nothing to deny the validity of this practice for at
least three-quarters of a century. And three-quarters of a
century of settled practice is long enough to entitle a
practice to “great weight in a proper interpretation” of the
constitutional provision. The Pocket Veto Case, 279 U. S.,
at 689.
We are aware of, but we are not persuaded by, threeimportant arguments to the contrary. First, some argue
that the Founders would likely have intended the Clause
to apply only to inter-session recesses, for they hardly
knew any other. See, e.g., Brief for Originalist Scholars as
Amici Curiae 27–29. Indeed, from the founding until the
Civil War inter-session recesses were the only kind of
significant recesses that Congress took. The problem with
this argument, however, is that it does not fully describe
the relevant founding intent. The question is not: Did the
Founders at the time think about intra-session recesses?
Perhaps they did not. The question is: Did the Founders
intend to restrict the scope of the Clause to the form ofcongressional recess then prevalent, or did they intend a
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broader scope permitting the Clause to apply, where ap
propriate, to somewhat changed circumstances? The
Founders knew they were writing a document designed to
apply to ever-changing circumstances over centuries.
After all, a Constitution is “intended to endure for ages to
come,” and must adapt itself to a future that can only be
“seen dimly,” if at all. McCulloch, 4 Wheat., at 415. We
therefore think the Framers likely did intend the Clause
to apply to a new circumstance that so clearly falls within
its essential purposes, where doing so is consistent with
the Clause’s language.
Second, some argue that the intra-session interpretationpermits the President to make “illogic[ally]” long recess
appointments. Brief for Respondent Noel Canning 13;
post, at 10 (SCALIA , J., concurring in judgment). A recess
appointment made between Congress’ annual sessions
would permit the appointee to serve for about a year, i.e.,
until the “end” of the “next” Senate “session.” Art. II, §2,
cl. 3. But an intra-session appointment made at the be
ginning or in the middle of a formal session could permit
the appointee to serve for 1½ or almost 2 years (until the
end of the following formal session).
We agree that the intra-session interpretation permitssomewhat longer recess appointments, but we do not agree
that this consequence is “illogical.” A President who
makes a recess appointment will often also seek to make a
regular appointment, nominating the appointee and secur
ing ordinary Senate confirmation. And the Clause ensures
that the President and Senate always have at least a full
session to go through the nomination and confirmation
process. That process may take several months. See
O’Connell, Vacant Offices: Delays in Staffing Top Agency
Positions, 82 S. Cal. L. Rev. 913, 967 (2009) (from 1987 to
2005 the nomination and confirmation process took an
average of 236 days for noncabinet agency heads). Arecess appointment that lasts somewhat longer than a
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year will ensure the President the continued assistance of
subordinates that the Clause permits him to obtain while
he and the Senate select a regular appointee. An ap-
pointment should last until the Senate has “an opportu-
nity to act on the subject,” Story, §1551, at 410, and the
Clause embodies a determination that a full session is
needed to select and vet a replacement.
Third, the Court of Appeals believed that application of
the Clause to intra-session recesses would introduce
“vagueness” into a Clause that was otherwise clear. 705
F. 3d, at 504. One can find problems of uncertainty, how-
ever, either way. In 1867, for example, President AndrewJohnson called a special session of Congress, which took
place during a lengthy intra-session recess. Consider the
period of time that fell just after the conclusion of that
special session. Did that period remain an intra-session
recess, or did it become an inter-session recess? Histori-
ans disagree about the answer. Compare Hartnett, 26
Cardozo L. Rev., at 408–409, with Brief for Constitutional
Law Scholars as Amici Curiae 23–24.
Or suppose that Congress adjourns sine die, but it does
so conditionally, so that the leadership can call the mem-
bers back into session when “the public interest shallwarrant it.” E.g., 155 Cong. Rec. 33429 (2009); 152 Cong.
Rec. 23731–23732 (2006); 150 Cong. Rec. 25925–25926
(2004). If the Senate Majority Leader were to reconvene
the Senate, how would we characterize the preceding
recess? Is it still inter-session? On the narrower interpre-
tation the label matters; on the broader it does not.
The greater interpretive problem is determining how
long a recess must be in order to fall within the Clause. Is
a break of a week, or a day, or an hour too short to count
as a “recess”? The Clause itself does not say. And
JUSTICE SCALIA claims that this silence itself shows that
the Framers intended the Clause to apply only to an inter-session recess. Post, at 12–13.
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We disagree. For one thing, the most likely reason the
Framers did not place a textual floor underneath the word
“recess” is that they did not foresee the need for one. They
might have expected that the Senate would meet for a
single session lasting at most half a year. The Federalist
No. 84, at 596 (A. Hamilton). And they might not have
anticipated that intra-session recesses would become
lengthier and more significant than inter-session ones.
The Framers’ lack of clairvoyance on that point is not
dispositive. Unlike JUSTICE SCALIA , we think it most
consistent with our constitutional structure to presume
that the Framers would have allowed intra-session recessappointments where there was a long history of such
practice.
Moreover, the lack of a textual floor raises a problem
that plagues both interpretations — JUSTICE SCALIA ’s and
ours. Today a brief inter-session recess is just as possible
as a brief intra-session recess. And though JUSTICE
SCALIA says that the “notion that the Constitution em
powers the President to make unilateral appointments
every time the Senate takes a half-hour lunch break is so
absurd as to be self-refuting ,” he must immediately con
cede (in a footnote) that the President “can make recessappointments during any break between sessions, no
matter how short.” Post, at 11, 15, n. 4 (emphasis added).
Even the Solicitor General, arguing for a broader inter
pretation, acknowledges that there is a lower limit appli
cable to both kinds of recess. He argues that the lower
limit should be three days by analogy to the Adjournments
Clause of the Constitution. Tr. of Oral Arg. 11. That
Clause says: “Neither House, during the Session of Con
gress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for
more than three days.” Art. I, §5, cl. 4.
We agree with the Solicitor General that a 3-day recess
would be too short. (Under Senate practice, “Sunday isgenerally not considered a day,” and so is not counted for
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purposes of the Adjournments Clause. S. Doc. No. 101–28,
F. Riddick & A. Frumin, Riddick’s Senate Procedure:
Precedents and Practices 1265 (hereinafter Riddick’s).)
The Adjournments Clause reflects the fact that a 3-day
break is not a significant interruption of legislative busi-
ness. As the Solicitor General says, it is constitutionally
de minimis. Brief for Petitioner 18. A Senate recess that
is so short that it does not require the consent of the
House is not long enough to trigger the President’s recess-
appointment power.
That is not to say that the President may make recess
appointments during any recess that is “more than threedays.” Art. I, §5, cl. 4. The Recess Appointments Clause
seeks to permit the Executive Branch to function smoothly
when Congress is unavailable. And though Congress has
taken short breaks for almost 200 years, and there have
been many thousands of recess appointments in that time,
we have not found a single example of a recess ap-
pointment made during an intra-session recess that was
shorter than 10 days. Nor has the Solicitor General. Reply
Brief 23. Indeed, the Office of Legal Counsel once infor-
mally advised against making a recess appointment dur-
ing a 6-day intra-session recess. 3 Op. OLC, at 315–316.The lack of examples suggests that the recess-
appointment power is not needed in that context. (The
length of a recess is “ordinarily calculated by counting the
calendar days running from the day after the recess begins
and including the day the recess ends.” 36 Op. OLC, at
___, n. 1 (citation omitted).)
There are a few historical examples of recess appoint-
ments made during inter-session recesses shorter than 10
days. We have already discussed President Theodore
Roosevelt’s appointments during the instantaneous, “ficti-
tious” recess. President Truman also made a recess ap-
pointment to the Civil Aeronautics Board during a 3-dayinter-session recess. Hogue, Recess Appointments: Fre-
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quently Asked Questions, at 5–6. President Taft made a
few appointments during a 9-day recess following his
inauguration, and President Lyndon Johnson made sev-
eral appointments during an 8-day recess several weeks
after assuming office. Hogue, The Law: Recess Appoint-
ments to Article III Courts, 34 Presidential Studies Q.
656, 671 (2004); 106 S. Exec. J. 2 (1964); 40 S. Exec. J. 12
(1909). There may be others of which we are unaware.
But when considered against 200 years of settled practice,
we regard these few scattered examples as anomalies. We
therefore conclude, in light of historical practice, that a
recess of more than 3 days but less than 10 days is pre-sumptively too short to fall within the Clause. We add the
word “presumptively” to leave open the possibility that
some very unusual circumstance—a national catastrophe,
for instance, that renders the Senate unavailable but calls
for an urgent response—could demand the exercise of the
recess-appointment power during a shorter break. (It
should go without saying—except that JUSTICE SCALIA
compels us to say it—that political opposition in the Sen-
ate would not qualify as an unusual circumstance.)
In sum, we conclude that the phrase “the recess” applies
to both intra-session and inter-session recesses. If a Sen-ate recess is so short that it does not require the consent of
the House, it is too short to trigger the Recess Appoint-
ments Clause. See Art. I, §5, cl. 4. And a recess lasting
less than 10 days is presumptively too short as well.
IV
The second question concerns the scope of the phrase
“vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Sen-
ate.” Art. II, §2, cl. 3 (emphasis added). All agree that the
phrase applies to vacancies that initially occur during a
recess. But does it also apply to vacancies that initially
occur before a recess and continue to exist during therecess? In our view the phrase applies to both kinds of
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vacancy.
We believe that the Clause’s language, read literally,
permits, though it does not naturally favor, our broader
interpretation. We concede that the most natural mean-
ing of “happens” as applied to a “vacancy” (at least to a
modern ear) is that the vacancy “happens” when it ini-
tially occurs. See 1 Johnson 913 (defining “happen” in
relevant part as meaning “[t]o fall out; to chance; to come
to pass”). But that is not the only possible way to use the
word.
Thomas Jefferson wrote that the Clause is “certainly
susceptible of [two] constructions.” Letter to Wilson CaryNicholas (Jan. 26, 1802), in 36 Papers of Thomas Jefferson
433 (B. Oberg ed., 2009). It “may mean ‘vacancies that
may happen to be’ or ‘may happen to fall’ ” during a recess.
Ibid. Jefferson used the phrase in the first sense when he
wrote to a job seeker that a particular position was una-
vailable, but that he (Jefferson) was “happy that another
vacancy happens wherein I can . . . avail the public of your
integrity & talents,” for “the office of Treasurer of the US.
is vacant by the resignation of mr Meredith.” Letter to
Thomas Tudor Tucker (Oct. 31, 1801), in 35 id., at 530 (B.
Oberg ed. 2008) (emphasis added). See also Laws Passedby the Legislature of Florida, No. 31, An Act to Organize
and Regulate the Militia of the Territory of Florida §13,
H. R. Exec. Doc. No. 72, 27th Cong., 3d Sess., 22 (1842)
(“[W]hen any vacancy shall take place in the office of any
lieutenant colonel, it shall be the duty of the colonel of the
regiment in which such vacancy may happen to order an
election to be held at the several precincts in the battalion
in which such vacancy may happen” (emphasis added)).
Similarly, when Attorney General William Wirt advised
President Monroe to follow the broader interpretation, he
wrote that the “expression seems not perfectly clear. It
may mean ‘happen to take place:’ that is, ‘to originate,’ ” orit “may mean, also, without violence to the sense, ‘happen
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to exist.’” 1 Op. Atty. Gen. 631, 631 – 632 (1823). The
broader interpretation, he added, is “most accordant with”
the Constitution’s “reason and spirit.” Id., at 632.
We can still understand this earlier use of “happen” if
we think of it used together with another word that, like
“vacancy,” can refer to a continuing state, say, a financial
crisis. A statute that gives the President authority to act
in respect to “any financial crisis that may happen during
his term” can easily be interpreted to include crises that
arise before, and continue during, that term. Perhaps that
is why the Oxford English Dictionary defines “happen” in
part as “chance to be,” rather than “chance to occur.” 6OED 1096 (emphasis added); see also 19 OED 383 (defin
ing “vacancy” as the “condition of an office or post being
. . . vacant”).
In any event, the linguistic question here is not whether
the phrase can be, but whether it must be, read more
narrowly. The question is whether the Clause is ambigu
ous. The Pocket Veto Case, 279 U. S., at 690. And the
broader reading, we believe, is at least a permissible
reading of a “ ‘doubtful’” phrase. Ibid. We consequently go
on to consider the Clause’s purpose and historical practice.
The Clause’s purpose strongly supports the broaderinterpretation. That purpose is to permit the President to
obtain the assistance of subordinate officers when the
Senate, due to its recess, cannot confirm them. Attorney
General Wirt clearly described how the narrower interpre
tation would undermine this purpose:
“Put the case of a vacancy occurring in an office, held
in a distant part of the country, on the last day of the
Senate’s session. Before the vacancy is made known
to the President, the Senate rises. The office may be
an important one; the vacancy may paralyze a whole
line of action in some essential branch of our internal
police; the public interests may imperiously demand
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that it shall be immediately filled. But the vacancy
happened to occur during the session of the Senate;
and if the President’s power is to be limited to such
vacancies only as happen to occur during the recess of
the Senate, the vacancy in the case put must continue,
however ruinous the consequences may be to the pub-
lic.” 1 Op. Atty. Gen., at 632.
Examples are not difficult to imagine: An ambassadorial
post falls vacant too soon before the recess begins for the
President to appoint a replacement; the Senate rejects a
President’s nominee just before a recess, too late to selectanother. Wirt explained that the “substantial purpose of
the constitution was to keep these offices filled,” and “if
the President shall not have the power to fill a vacancy
thus circumstanced, . . . the substance of the constitution
will be sacrificed to a dubious construction of its letter.”
Ibid. Thus the broader construction, encompassing vacan-
cies that initially occur before the beginning of a recess, is
the “only construction of the constitution which is compat-
ible with its spirit, reason, and purposes; while, at the
same time, it offers no violence to its language.” Id., at
633.
We do not agree with JUSTICE SCALIA ’s suggestion thatthe Framers would have accepted the catastrophe envi-
sioned by Wirt because Congress can always provide for
acting officers, see 5 U. S. C. §3345, and the President can
always convene a special session of Congress, see U. S.
Const., Art. II, §3. Acting officers may have less authority
than Presidential appointments. 6 Op. OLC 119, 121
(1982). Moreover, to rely on acting officers would lessen
the President’s ability to staff the Executive Branch with
people of his own choosing, and thereby limit the Presi-
dent’s control and political accountability. Cf. Free Enter-
prise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Bd.,561 U. S. 477, 497–498 (2010). Special sessions are
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burdensome (and would have been especially so at the
time of the founding). The point of the Recess Appoint
ments Clause was to avoid reliance on these inadequate
expedients.
At the same time, we recognize one important purpose
related consideration that argues in the opposite direction.
A broad interpretation might permit a President to avoid
Senate confirmations as a matter of course. If the Clause
gives the President the power to “fill up all vacancies” that
occur before, and continue to exist during, the Senate’s
recess, a President might not submit any nominations to
the Senate. He might simply wait for a recess and thenprovide all potential nominees with recess appointments.
He might thereby routinely avoid the constitutional need
to obtain the Senate’s “advice and consent.”
Wirt thought considerations of character and politics
would prevent Presidents from abusing the Clause in this
way. 1 Op. Atty. Gen., at 634. He might have added that
such temptations should not often arise. It is often less
desirable for a President to make a recess appointment. A
recess appointee only serves a limited term. That, com
bined with the lack of Senate approval, may diminish the
recess appointee’s ability, as a practical matter, to get acontroversial job done. And even where the President and
Senate are at odds over politically sensitive appointments,
compromise is normally possible. Indeed, the 1940 Pay
Act amendments represent a general compromise, for they
foresee payment of salaries to recess appointees where
vacancies occur before the recess began but not too long
before (namely, within 30 days before). 5 U. S. C.
§5503(a)(1); see infra, at 32. Moreover, the Senate, like
the President, has institutional “resources,” including
political resources, “available to protect and assert its
interests.” Goldwater v. Carter, 444 U. S. 996, 1004 (1979)
(Rehnquist, J., concurring in judgment). In an unusualinstance, where a matter is important enough to the Sen
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ate, that body can remain in session, preventing recess
appointments by refusing to take a recess. See Part V,
infra. In any event, the Executive Branch has adhered to
the broader interpretation for two centuries, and Senate
confirmation has always remained the norm for officers
that require it.
While we concede that both interpretations carry with
them some risk of undesirable consequences, we believe
the narrower interpretation risks undermining constitu-
tionally conferred powers more seriously and more often.
It would prevent the President from making any recess
appointment that arose before a recess, no matter who theofficial, no matter how dire the need, no matter how un-
controversial the appointment, and no matter how late in
the session the office fell vacant. Overall, like Attorney
General Wirt, we believe the broader interpretation more
consistent with the Constitution’s “reason and spirit.” 1
Op. Atty. Gen., at 632.
Historical practice over the past 200 years strongly
favors the broader interpretation. The tradition of apply-
ing the Clause to pre-recess vacancies dates at least to
President James Madison. There is no undisputed record
of Presidents George Washington, John Adams, or ThomasJefferson making such an appointment, though the Solici-
tor General believes he has found records showing that
Presidents Washington and Jefferson did so. We know
that Edmund Randolph, Washington’s Attorney General,
favored a narrow reading of the Clause. Randolph be-
lieved that the “Spirit of the Constitution favors the par-
ticipation of the Senate in all appointments,” though he
did not address—let alone answer—the powerful purpos-
ive and structural arguments subsequently made by At-
torney General Wirt. See Edmund Randolph’s Opinion on
Recess Appointments (July 7, 1792), in 24 Papers of
Thomas Jefferson 166 (J. Catanzariti ed. 1990).President Adams seemed to endorse the broader view of
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the Clause in writing, though we are not aware of any
appointments he made in keeping with that view. See
Letter to J. McHenry (Apr. 16, 1799), in 8 Works of John
Adams 632 – 633 (C. Adams ed. 1853). His Attorney Gen
eral, Charles Lee, later informed Jefferson that, in the
Adams administration, “whenever an office became vacant
so short a time before Congress rose, as not to give an
opportunity of enquiring for a proper character, they let it
lie always till recess.” 36 Papers of Thomas Jefferson 433.
We know that President Jefferson thought that the broad
interpretation was linguistically supportable, though his
actual practice is not clear. But the evidence suggeststhat James Madison — as familiar as anyone with the
workings of the Constitutional Convention — appointed
Theodore Gaillard to replace a district judge who had left
office before a recess began. Hartnett, 26 Cardozo L. Rev.,
at 400 – 401. It also appears that in 1815 Madison signed a
bill that created two new offices prior to a recess which he
then filled later during the recess. See Act of Mar. 3, ch.
95, 3 Stat. 235; S. J. 13th Cong., 3d Sess., 689 – 690 (1815);
3 S. Exec. J. 19 (1828) (for Monday, Jan. 8, 1816). He also
made recess appointments to “territorial” United States
attorney and marshal positions, both of which had beencreated when the Senate was in session more than two
years before. Act of Feb. 27, 1813, ch. 35, 2 Stat. 806; 3 S.
Exec. J. 19. JUSTICE SCALIA refers to “written evidence of
Madison’s own beliefs,” post, at 36, but in fact we have no
direct evidence of what President Madison believed. We
only know that he declined to make one appointment to a
pre-recess vacancy after his Secretary of War advised him
that he lacked the power. On the other hand, he did
apparently make at least five other appointments to pre
recess vacancies, as JUSTICE SCALIA does not dispute.
The next President, James Monroe, received and pre
sumably acted upon Attorney General Wirt’s advice,namely that “all vacancies which, from any casualty,
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happen to exist at a time when the Senate cannot be
consulted as to filling them, may be temporarily filled by
the President.” 1 Op. Atty. Gen., at 633. Nearly every
subsequent Attorney General to consider the question
throughout the Nation’s history has thought the same.
E.g., 2 Op. Atty. Gen. 525, 528 (1832); 7 Op. Atty. Gen.
186, 223 (1855); 10 Op. Atty. Gen. 356, 356–357 (1862); 12
Op. Atty. Gen. 32, 33 (1866); 12 Op. Atty. Gen., at 452; 14
Op. Atty. Gen. 562, 564 (1875); 15 Op. Atty. Gen. 207
(1877); 16 Op. Atty. Gen. 522, 524 (1880); 17 Op. Atty.
Gen. 521 (1883); 18 Op. Atty. Gen. 29, 29–30 (1884); 19
Op. Atty. Gen. 261, 262 (1889); 26 Op. Atty. Gen. 234,234–235 (1907); 30 Op. Atty. Gen. 314, 315 (1914); 41 Op.
Atty. Gen. 463, 465 (1960); 3 Op. OLC 314 (1979); 6 Op.
OLC 585, 586 (1982); 20 Op. OLC 124, 161 (1996); 36 Op.
OLC ___ (2012). Indeed, as early as 1862, Attorney Gen-
eral Bates advised President Lincoln that his power to fill
pre-recess vacancies was “settled . . . as far . . . as a consti-
tutional question can be settled,” 10 Op. Atty. Gen., at
356, and a century later Acting Attorney General Walsh
gave President Eisenhower the same advice “without any
doubt,” 41 Op. Atty. Gen., at 466.
This power is important. The Congressional ResearchService is “unaware of any official source of information
tracking the dates of vacancies in federal offices.” The
Noel Canning Decision 3, n. 6. Nonetheless, we have
enough information to believe that the Presidents since
Madison have made many recess appointments filling
vacancies that initially occurred prior to a recess. As we
have just said, nearly every 19th- and 20th-century Attor-
ney General expressing a view on the matter has agreed
with William Wirt, and Presidents tend to follow the legal
advice of their chief legal officers. Moreover, the Solicitor
General has compiled a list of 102 (mostly uncontested)
recess appointments made by Presidents going back to thefounding. App. to Brief for Petitioner 65a–89a. Given the
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difficulty of finding accurate information about vacancy
dates, that list is undoubtedly far smaller than the actual
number. No one disputes that every President since
James Buchanan has made recess appointments to pre
existing vacancies.
Common sense also suggests that many recess appoin
tees filled vacancies that arose before the recess began.
We have compared the list of intra-session recess ap
pointments in the Solicitor General’s brief with the chart
of congressional recesses. Where a specific date of ap
pointment can be ascertained, more than half of those
intra-session appointments were made within two weeksof the beginning of a recess. That short window strongly
suggests that many of the vacancies initially arose prior to
the recess. See App. to Brief for Petitioner 1a – 64a; Ap
pendix A, infra. Thus, it is not surprising that the Con
gressional Research Service, after examining the vacancy
dates associated with a random sample of 24 inter-session
recess appointments since 1981, concluded that “[i]n most
of the 24 cases, the preponderance of evidence indicated
that the vacancy arose prior to the recess during which the
appointment was made.” The Noel Canning Decision 3.
Further, with research assistance from the Supreme CourtLibrary, we have examined a random sample of the recess
appointments made by our two most recent Presidents,
and have found that almost all of those appointments
filled pre-recess vacancies: Of a sample of 21 recess ap
pointments, 18 filled pre-recess vacancies and only 1 filled
a vacancy that arose during the recess in which he was
appointed. The precise date on which 2 of the vacancies
arose could not be determined. See Appendix B, infra.
Taken together, we think it is a fair inference that a large
proportion of the recess appointments in the history of the
Nation have filled pre-existing vacancies.
Did the Senate object? Early on, there was some sporadic disagreement with the broad interpretation. In 1814
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Senator Gore said that if “the vacancy happen at another
time, it is not the case described by the Constitution.” 26
Annals of Cong. 653. In 1822 a Senate committee, while
focusing on the President’s power to fill a new vacancy
created by statute, used language to the same effect. 38
id., at 489, 500. And early Congresses enacted statutes
authorizing certain recess appointments, see post, at 31, a
fact that may or may not suggest they accepted the nar-
rower interpretation of the Clause. Most of those stat-
utes—including the one passed by the First Congress—
authorized appointments to newly created offices, and may
have been addressed to the separate question of whethernew offices are vacancies within the meaning of the
Clause. See Letter from Alexander Hamilton to James
McHenry (May 3, 1799), in 23 Papers of Alexander Hamil-
ton 94 (H. Syrett ed. 1976) (“Vacancy is a relative term,
and presupposes that the Office has been once filled”);
Reply Brief 17. In any event, by 1862 Attorney General
Bates could still refer to “the unbroken acquiescence of the
Senate” in support of the broad interpretation. 10 Op.
Atty. Gen., at 356.
Then in 1863 the Senate Judiciary Committee disagreed
with the broad interpretation. It issued a report conclud-ing that a vacancy “must have its inceptive point after one
session has closed and before another session has begun.”
S. Rep. No. 80, 37th Cong., 3d Sess., p. 3. And the Senate
then passed the Pay Act, which provided that “no money
shall be paid . . . as a salary, to any person appointed
during the recess of the Senate, to fill a vacancy . . . which
. . . existed while the Senate was in session.” Act of Feb. 9,
1863, §2, 12 Stat. 646. Relying upon the floor statement of
a single Senator, JUSTICE SCALIA suggests that the pas-
sage of the Pay Act indicates that the Senate as a whole
endorsed the position in the 1863 Report. But the circum-
stances are more equivocal. During the floor debate on thebill, not a single Senator referred to the Report. Cong.
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Globe, 37th Cong., 3d Sess. 564 – 565 (1863). Indeed, Sena
tor Trumbull, who introduced the Pay Act, acknowledged
that there was disagreement about the underlying consti
tutional question. Id., at 565 (“[S]ome other persons think
he has that power”). Further, if a majority of the Senate
had believed appointments to pre-recess vacancies were
unconstitutional, it could have attempted to do far more
than temporarily dock the appointees’ pay. Cf. Tenure of
Office Act of 1867, §5, 14 Stat. 431 (making it a federal
crime for “any person” to “accept any appointment” in
certain circumstances).
In any event, the Senate subsequently abandoned itshostility. In the debate preceding the 1905 Senate Report
regarding President Roosevelt’s “constructive” recess
appointments, Senator Tillman — who chaired the Com
mittee that authored the 1905 Report — brought up the
1863 Report, and another Senator responded: “Whatever
that report may have said in 1863, I do not think that has
been the view the Senate has taken” of the issue. 38 Cong.
Rec. 1606 (1904). Senator Tillman then agreed that “the
Senate has acquiesced” in the President’s “power to fill”
pre-recess vacancies. Ibid. And Senator Tillman’s 1905
Report described the Clause’s purpose in terms closelyechoing Attorney General Wirt. 1905 Senate Report, at 2
(“Its sole purpose was to render it certain that at all times
there should be, whether the Senate was in session or not,
an officer for every office” (emphasis added)).
In 1916 the Senate debated whether to pay a recess
appointee who had filled a pre-recess vacancy and had not
subsequently been confirmed. Both Senators to address
the question — one on each side of the payment debate —
agreed that the President had the constitutional power to
make the appointment, and the Senate voted to pay the
appointee for his service. 53 Cong. Rec. 4291 – 4299; 39
Stat. 818 – 819. In 1927 the Comptroller General, a legislative officer, wrote that “there is no question but that the
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President has authority to make a recess appointment to
fill any vacancy,” including those that “existed while the
Senate was in session.” 7 Comp. Gen. 10, 11 (emphasis
added). Meanwhile, Presidents continued to make ap-
pointments to pre-recess vacancies. The Solicitor General
has identified 40 between 1863 and 1940, but that number
is clearly not comprehensive. See, e.g., 32 Op. Atty. Gen.
271–272 (1920) (listing 5 appointments that are not in the
Solicitor General’s appendix); Recess Appointments,
Washington Post, July 7, 1880, p. 1 (noting that President
Hayes had made “quite a number of appointments” to pre-
recess vacancies).Then in 1940 Congress amended the Pay Act to author-
ize salary payments (with some exceptions) where (1) the
“vacancy arose within thirty days prior to the termination
of the session,” (2) “at the termination of the session” a
nomination was “pending,” or (3) a nominee was “rejected
by the Senate within thirty days prior to the termination
of the session.” Act of July 11, 54 Stat. 751 (codified, as
amended, at 5 U. S. C. §5503). All three circumstances
concern a vacancy that did not initially occur during a
recess but happened to exist during that recess. By pay-
ing salaries to this kind of recess appointee, the 1940Senate (and later Senates) in effect supported the Presi-
dent’s interpretation of the Clause.
The upshot is that the President has consistently and
frequently interpreted the Recess Appointments Clause to
apply to vacancies that initially occur before, but continue
to exist during, a recess of the Senate. The Senate as a
body has not countered this practice for nearly three-
quarters of a century, perhaps longer. See A. Amar, The
Unwritten Constitution 576–577, n. 16 (2012) (for nearly
200 years “the overwhelming mass of actual practice”
supports the President’s interpretation); Mistretta v.
United States, 488 U. S. 361, 401 (1989) (a “200–yeartradition” can “ ‘give meaning’ to the Constitution” (quot-
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ing Youngstown, 343 U. S., at 610 (Frankfurter, J., con-
curring))). The tradition is long enough to entitle the
practice “to great regard in determining the true construc-
tion” of the constitutional provision. The Pocket Veto Case,
279 U. S., at 690. And we are reluctant to upset this
traditional practice where doing so would seriously shrink
the authority that Presidents have believed existed and
have exercised for so long.
In light of