NINE

ABDOMINO-PELVIC

REGIONS

Maintaining Homeostasis

• The body communicates through nervous and endocrine systems consisting of 3 basic components1) Receptor

• Detects a stimulus

2) Control center• Analyzes information• Determines appropriate response

3) Effector (Muscles or glands)• Responds to the stimulus

Simple columnar

Stratified Squamous

Bone

Simple squamous

Simple Squamous

Simple Squamous

Nervous

Stratified Cuboidal

Stratified columnar

Stratified columnar

Stratified columnar

Nerve

Simple cuboidal

Smooth muscle

Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscle

Stratified Squamous

Figure 7.1a

Skull

Thoracic cage(ribs andsternum)

(a) Anterior view

Facial bonesCranium

Sacrum

Vertebralcolumn

ClavicleScapulaSternumRibHumerusVertebraRadiusUlnaCarpals

PhalangesMetacarpalsFemurPatella

TibiaFibula

TarsalsMetatarsalsPhalanges

Figure 7.16

Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12

Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum

Coccyx4 fused vertebrae

Anterior view Right lateral view

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocesses

Intervertebraldiscs

Intervertebralforamen

C1

Figure 7.33a

Medialcuneiform

Phalanges

Metatarsals

TarsalsNavicular

Intermediatecuneiform

Talus

Calcaneus(a) Superior view

Cuboid

Lateralcuneiform

Proximal54321

Middle

Distal

Trochleaof talus

Figure 7.28a-b

• Trapezoid• Trapezium

• Scaphoid

Phalanges

Carpals

Radius

• Proximal• Middle• Distal

• Triquetrum• Lunate

• Capitate• Hamate

• Pisiform

Metacarpals

Carpals

(b) Posterior view of left hand

Ulna

• Base• Shaft• Head

• Trapezoid• Trapezium

• Scaphoid

Carpals

(a) Anterior view of left hand

Radius

Sesamoidbones

• Gouty Arthritis

• Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by inflammation

• More common in men; Typically affects the joint at the base of the great toe

• In untreated gouty arthritis, the bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint

• Treatment: drugs, plenty of water, avoidance of alcohol

• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause

• Usually arises between age 40 and 50, but may occur at any age; affects 3 times as many women as men

• Signs and symptoms include joint pain and swelling (usually bilateral), anemia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular problems; RA begins with synovitis of the affected joint

• Inflammatory blood cells migrate to the joint, release inflammatory chemicals

• Inflamed synovial membrane thickens into a pannus • Pannus erodes cartilage, scar tissue forms, articulating bone ends

connect (ankylosis)• Conservative therapy: aspirin, long-term use of antibiotics, and

physical therapy• Progressive treatment: anti-inflammatory drugs or

immunosuppressants

Movements at Synovial Joints1. Gliding2. Angular movements:

– Flexion, extension, hyperextension– Abduction, adduction– Circumduction

3. Rotation– Medial and lateral rotation

Movements at Synovial Joints4. Special movements– Supination, pronation– Dorsiflexion, plantar flexion of the foot– Inversion, eversion– Protraction, retraction– Elevation, depression– Opposition

Gliding Movements

• One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface

• Examples:– Intercarpal joints– Intertarsal joints– Between articular processes of vertebrae

Figure 8.5a

Gliding

(a) Gliding movements at the wrist

Angular Movements

Movements that occur along the sagittal plane:

• Flexion—decreases the angle of the joint

• Extension— increases the angle of the joint

• Hyperextension—excessive extension beyond normal range of motion

Figure 8.5b

(b) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and hyperextension of the neck

Hyperextension Extension

Flexion

Figure 8.5c

Hyperextension Flexion

Extension

(c) Angular movements: flexion, extension, andhyperextension of the vertebral column

Figure 8.5d

Extension

Extension

Flexion

Flexion

(d) Angular movements: flexion and extension at theshoulder and knee

Angular Movements

Movements that occur along the frontal plane:

• Abduction—movement away from the midline

• Adduction—movement toward the midline

• Circumduction—flexion + abduction + extension + adduction of a limb so as to describe a cone in space

Figure 8.5e

Abduction

Adduction

(e) Angular movements: abduction, adduction, andcircumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder

Circumduction

Rotation

• The turning of a bone around its own long axis

• Examples:– Between C1 and C2 vertebrae

– Rotation of humerus and femur

Figure 8.5f

Lateralrotation

Medialrotation

Rotation

(f) Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb

Special Movements

• Movements of radius around ulna:– Supination (turning hand backward)– Pronation (turning hand forward)

Figure 8.6a

Supination(radius and ulna are parallel)

(a) Pronation (P) and supination (S)

Pronation(radius rotatesover ulna)

Special Movements

• Movements of the foot:– Dorsiflexion (upward movement) – Plantar flexion (downward movement)

Figure 8.6b

Dorsiflexion

Plantar flexion

Dorsiflexion

Plantar flexion

(b) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion

Special Movements

• Movements of the foot:– Inversion (turn sole medially)– Eversion (turn sole laterally)

Figure 8.6c

EversionInversion

(c) Inversion and eversion

Special Movements

• Movements in a transverse plane:– Protraction (anterior movement)– Retraction (posterior movement)

Figure 8.6d

Protractionof mandible

Retractionof mandible

(d) Protraction and retraction

Special Movements

• Elevation (lifting a body part superiorly)

• Depression (moving a body part inferiorly)

Figure 8.6e

Elevationof mandible

Depressionof mandible

(e) Elevation and depression

Special Movements

• Opposition of the thumb– Movement in the saddle joint so that the thumb

touches the tips of the other fingers

Figure 8.6f

(f) Opposition

Opposition

• Odor Of Orangutan Terrified Tarzan After Forty Voracious Gorillas Viciously Attacked Him

• Old Opie Occasionally Tries Trigonometry And Feels Very Gloomy, Vague And Hypoactive

• The cranial nerves are:

• I - Olfactory nerve

• II - Optic nerve

• III - Oculomotor nerve

• IV - Trochlear nerve

• V - Trigeminal nerve/dentist nerve

• VI - Abducens nerve

• VII - Facial nerve

• VIII - Vestibulocochlear nerve/Auditory nerve

• IX - Glossopharyngeal nerve

• X - Vagus nerve

• XI - Accessory nerve/Spinal accessory nerve

• XII - Hypoglossal nerve

Figure 12.6a

Postcentralgyrus

Centralsulcus

Precentralgyrus

Frontallobe

(a)

Parietal lobeParieto-occipital sulcus(on medial surfaceof hemisphere)Lateral sulcus

Transverse cerebral fissure

Occipital lobeTemporal lobe

CerebellumPons

Medulla oblongataSpinal cord

Cortex (gray matter)

Fissure(a deepsulcus)

Gyrus

SulcusWhite matter

Figure 12.6b

Centralsulcus

(b)

Frontal lobe

Temporal lobe(pulled down)

Gyri of insula

Figure 16.1

Pineal glandHypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Parathyroid glands(on dorsal aspectof thyroid gland)Thymus

Thyroid gland

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

• Two mechanisms, depending on their chemical nature

1. Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid–based hormones except thyroid hormone)

• Cannot enter the target cells

• Act on plasma membrane receptors

• Coupled by G proteins to intracellular second messengers that mediate the target cell’s response

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

2. Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones)

• Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes

Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain

• Traumatic brain injuries– Concussion—temporary alteration in function– Contusion—permanent damage– Subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage—may

force brain stem through the foramen magnum, resulting in death

– Cerebral edema—swelling of the brain associated with traumatic head injury

• Alzheimer’s disease (AD): a progressive degenerative disease of the brain that results in dementia; accounts for 50 to 80 percent of dementia cases, early onset types can appear as early as 40 yoa

• Two abnormal structures called plaques and tangles are prime suspects in damaging and killing nerve cells.

• Plaques are deposits of a protein fragment called beta-amyloid that build up in the spaces between nerve cells.

• Tangles are twisted fibers of another protein called tau that build up inside cells.

• Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)—temporary episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia

Figure 18.4e

Aorta

Left pulmonaryarteryLeft atriumLeft pulmonaryveins

Mitral (bicuspid)valve

Aortic valve

Pulmonary valveLeft ventricle

Papillary muscleInterventricularseptumEpicardiumMyocardiumEndocardium

(e) Frontal section

Superior vena cava

Right pulmonaryarteryPulmonary trunk

Right atrium

Right pulmonaryveinsFossa ovalisPectinate muscles

Tricuspid valveRight ventricle

Chordae tendineae

Trabeculae carneae

Inferior vena cava

Body Cavities

The ventral cavity contains the thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities, and are separated by the diaphragm.

Dorsal cavity contains the cranial and spinal cavities

Figure 12.12

Corpus callosum

Choroid plexusThalamus(encloses third ventricle)

Pineal gland(part of epithalamus)

Posterior commissure

CorporaquadrigeminaCerebralaqueductArbor vitae (ofcerebellum)Fourth ventricleChoroid plexusCerebellum

Septum pellucidum

Interthalamicadhesion(intermediatemass of thalamus)Interven-tricularforamenAnteriorcommissure

Hypothalamus

Optic chiasma

Pituitary gland

Cerebral hemisphere

Mammillary bodyPonsMedulla oblongata

Spinal cord

Mid-brain

Fornix

· Premature Ventricular Complexes PVCs

Also you'll see 2 odd waveforms, these are the ventricles depolarizing prematurely in response to a signal within the ventricles.(Above - unifocal PVC's as they look alike if they differed in appearance they would be called multifocal PVC's, as below)

Multi focal PVCs