MURI-OPUS: http://www.mit.ucf.edu/

OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM INFLUENCE ON STRESS AS A INFLUENCE ON STRESS AS A

FUNCTION OF TASKSFUNCTION OF TASKS

J.M. Ross, J.L. Szalma, and P.A. HancockJ.M. Ross, J.L. Szalma, and P.A. Hancock

University of Central Florida University of Central Florida Orlando, FloridaOrlando, Florida

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OutlineOutline

• Stress Effects on Human Stress Effects on Human PerformancePerformance

• Role of Individual DifferencesRole of Individual Differences

• Current Experimental Design & Current Experimental Design & ResultsResults

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Trinity of StressTrinity of StressStress SignatureStress Signature(Deterministic)(Deterministic)

Compensatory ProcessesCompensatory Processes(Nomothetic)(Nomothetic)

Goal-Directed Goal-Directed BehaviorBehavior

(Idiographic)(Idiographic)

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Stress EffectsStress Effects• Physiological Changes Physiological Changes

• Quickened heartbeat, labored breathing, and trembling Quickened heartbeat, labored breathing, and trembling (Rachman, 1983).(Rachman, 1983).

• Emotional Reactions Emotional Reactions • Fear, anxiety, & frustration (Driskell & Salas, 1991)Fear, anxiety, & frustration (Driskell & Salas, 1991)• Motivational losses (Innes & Allnutt, 1967)Motivational losses (Innes & Allnutt, 1967)

• Cognitive Effects Cognitive Effects • Narrowed attention (Combs & Taylor, 1952; Easterbrook, Narrowed attention (Combs & Taylor, 1952; Easterbrook,

1959)1959)• Decreased search behavior (Streufert & Streufert, 1981)Decreased search behavior (Streufert & Streufert, 1981)• Longer reaction time to peripheral cues and decreased Longer reaction time to peripheral cues and decreased

vigilance (Wachtel, 1968)vigilance (Wachtel, 1968)• Degraded problem solving (Yamamoto, 1984)Degraded problem solving (Yamamoto, 1984)• Performance rigidity (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981)Performance rigidity (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981)

• Changes In Social Behavior Changes In Social Behavior • Loss of team perspective (Driskell, Salas, & Johnston, Loss of team perspective (Driskell, Salas, & Johnston,

1997)1997)• Decrease in prosocial behaviors (Mathews & Canon, Decrease in prosocial behaviors (Mathews & Canon,

1975). 1975).

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Hancock and Warm TheoryHancock and Warm Theory

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Maximal Adaptability ModelMaximal Adaptability Model Hancock and Warm (1989)Hancock and Warm (1989)

• Recognition of task as a proximal Recognition of task as a proximal stressor stressor

• Two fundamental task dimensions.Two fundamental task dimensions.• Information structure – often expressed Information structure – often expressed

spatially.spatially.• Information rate – the temporal Information rate – the temporal

characteristics of the task.characteristics of the task.

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INFORMATION RATE

INFORMATION STRUCTURE

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Distortion of Space-Time Under Stress

StressStressPerceived Time

Sidereal Time

Hancock & Weaver (in press)

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Role of Individual Differences

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Individual Differences in Stress Response

Goal-Directed Goal-Directed BehaviorBehavior

(Idiographic)(Idiographic)

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Dispositional Optimism

• Optimists score higher on internal locus of control and self-esteem, and lower on measures of hopelessness, perceived stress, and social anxiety (Carver, Blaney, & Scheier, 1979).

• Positive correlation with Active Coping, and negatively correlated with focus on emotion and disengagement from the goal (Scheier & Carver, 1985).

• Pollyanna Principle (Martin & Stang, 1978)

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Pollyanna Principle

• Optimistic Characteristics– Overestimating the size of valued items.– Reporting good news more frequently than bad.– Thinking more pleasant than unpleasant thoughts.– Putting positive before negative items.– Rating themselves and others as better than average in almost

every respect.

• Adaptive because allows individual to become aware of threatening implications in a gradual, manageable fashion at a time when the ego is weakened and vulnerable.

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Pessimism

• Performance impairment (sometimes; Helton, Dember, Warm, & Matthews, 1999)

• Increased Stress Symptoms (Helton et al., 1999; Szalma, 2002)

• Maladaptive coping strategies (Scheier & Carver, 1987; Szalma, 2002)

• Effects may depend on task characteristics (Thropp, Szalma, Ross & Hancock, 2003)

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Traits and Resource Sharing

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Hypotheses

1. Individuals high in optimism (low on pessimism) would exhibit less stress symptoms than those low in optimism (high in pessimism)

2. These differences should be greater under more demanding task conditions: combination of spatial and temporal characteristics

3. Trait effects should be greater when an external stressor is applied (white noise)

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Experimental DesignExperimental Design

• Participants• N=46 (23 females, 23 males)• Age 23.3 years (SD=4.2)

• Stress• 85 decibels on the A weighted scale • Intermittent white noise

• Tasks• Spatial Task• Temporal Task• Combined (Spatial/Temporal) Task

• Analysis• 2 (noise) by 3 (task) Mixed ANOVA

• Within participant on task.• Between participant on noise.

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Experimental TasksExperimental TasksSpatial Task Temporal Task

Combined Task

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Short Duration and Short Short Duration and Short Length Line TargetLength Line Target

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InstructionsInstructions Task 2Task 2

OPIOPIPre-Pre-

DSSQDSSQPost-Post-DSSQDSSQ

Post-Post-DSSQDSSQ

Post-Post-DSSQDSSQ

Task 1Task 1StartStart EndEndTask 3Task 3

• Optimism/Pessimism Inventory (OPI)Optimism/Pessimism Inventory (OPI)::• Pessimism/Optimism measured as separate scales Pessimism/Optimism measured as separate scales

(partially independent constructs; see (partially independent constructs; see Dember, Martin, Dember, Martin, Hummer, Howe, & Melton, 1989)Hummer, Howe, & Melton, 1989)

• DSSQDSSQ: : • Pre-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Pre-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task

DistressDistress (Matthews et al., 1999)(Matthews et al., 1999)

• Post-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Post-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task DistressDistress

Questionnaires and ProcedureQuestionnaires and Procedure

7 Minutes

7 Minutes

7 Minutes

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Dispositional Effects on Performance

• Disposition did not predict performance– Agrees With

• Szalma (2002)• Thropp et al. last years HFES (2003)

– Disagrees With• Helton et al. (1999)

• Neither Pessimism or Optimism interacted with noise to influence performance or self-reports of stress (May use general stress prefer noise)– Agrees With

• Thropp et al. (2003)• Also mention if dif task (e.g., swimming)

– Disagrees With

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Disposition and Subjective Stress Measures

• Optimism– Task Engagement

• In the spatial task, optimism predicted less post Task Engagement (R2 =.35; ∆R2 = .08, p<.05)

– Worry– Distress

• Pessimism

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Post-Task Engagement as a Function of Optimism

TE = -0.05Opt + 2.44

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72

Optimism

Po

st-t

ask

En

ga

ge

men

tSpatial-Dominant Task

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Pre-State Optimism/Pessimism Stress Measures

-0.5-0.4

-0.3-0.2-0.1

0

0.10.20.3

0.40.5

Stress Measure

Str

eng

th o

f C

orr

elat

ion

Optimism

Pessimism

Task Engagement Distress Worry

Pre-State Measure Correlations

* Correlation at the 0.05 level

** Correlation at the 0.01 level

*

***

*

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Conclusions

• Performance effects– d prime values range 1.05-1.09– White noise did not interact with either trait

• Optimism may exert a greater influence on stress response than previous experiments indicated

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Optimism Conclusions

• This effect is task dependent– Effects of optimism/pessimism on stress state

was not exacerbated by the combination of spatial/temporal demands

• Effects vary across dimensions of stress-state

• The stress-trait relation varied depending on task dimension emphasized (spatial, temporal)

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References

Carver, C.S., Blaney, P.H., & Scheier, M.F. (1979). Reassertation and giving up: The interactive role of self-directed attention and outcome expectancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1859-1870.

Martin, M.W., & Stang, D.J. (1978). The Pollyanna principle. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.

Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4(3), 219-247.

Add rest of references!

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AcknowledgementThis research was supported by a Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (MURI) program grant from the Army Research Office, Dr. Elmar Schmeisser, Technical Monitor (Grant# DAAD19-01-1-0621). The research was facilitated by a DARPA-funded program under Grant NBCH1030012, CMDR Dylan Schmorrow, Technical Monitor. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, Department of Defense, or the US Government.