Glen A. HillObihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

Motivational Self of EFL science students in

Japan

Joseph FaloutNihon University, College of Science and Technology

Matthew AppleNara National College of Technology

Background

Trade agreements

Environmental protection Mega-

projects

Research & development

Disaster relief

Why will S&E students need English?

d

Multinational corporations

However, S&E students struggle with second language (L2) motivation.

S&E students are more likely to have experienced demotivation and learned

helplessness

(Falout et al, 2009)

S&E students feel a loss of confidence and blame themselves for falling behind

(Falout & Maruyama, 2004)

Problems are based on false hopes false expectations.

Specialized majors may lose motivation early, since introductory courses are unrelated to

their field

(O’Dowd, 2010)

S&E teachers do not encourage learning English, leading to poor course selection and

weak ability

(Hill, 2010)

What can help S&E students to become motivated to learn and improve their L2?

What L2 motivational factors are most salient for S&E students in Japan?

What can help S&E students to become motivated to learn and improve their L2?

Theories of motivation applicable in the Japanese EFL context.

A desire to integrate or identify with the target language culture motivation.

Integrative orientation

Attitudes toward the L2 culture

Motivational intensity

Socio-cultural model

Learners who have choices, feel they belong, and are capable motivated

Autonomy

Relatedness Competence

Self-determination theory

Learners who can imagine reaching an “ideal self” motivated.

Ideal L2 Self

L2 Experience Ought-to L2 Self

L2 Motivational Self System

In a perfect world, my English abilities are very high.

I will be able to use English perfectly or almost perfectly for my needs.

Ideal L2 self

What I would like to become

Most likely, I can attain some of the English abilities that I expect.

It’s possible that I will be able to use English to a satisfactory level.

Probable L2 self

What I might become

I know the specific English abilities necessary to succeed.

I have no choice in selecting these. Attaining the proper level is obligatory.

Ought-toL2 self

What I’m afraid to become

Probable L2 self

Ideal L2

self

Ought-toL2 self

What I would like to become

What I might become

What I’m afraid to become

Primary research questions for the three studies in this presentation

1. What are the most salient L2 motivational factors for S&E students in Japan?

2. What are the relationships among various L2 motivational factors for S&E students?

3. Which Possible L2 Selves factors predict English language performance?

Preliminary Studies

Variables Assemble!

Integrative orientation

Attitudes toward the L2 culture

Motivational intensity

Autonomy

Relatedness Competence

Ideal L2 Self

L2 Experience Ought-to L2 Self

Attitudes toward English

Interest in English Culture

Classroom Atmosphere

Perceived Speaking Competence

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Perceived Social Values

Attitudes toward L2 Culture

Interest in English Culture

Relatedness

Perceived Competence

L2 Experience

Ought-to L2 Self

Variables in theory Variables used

Apple, Falout, & Hill (2012)

N = 395; Technical college students

high sense of importance of English,

low sense of ability

SEM path model results showed the relationship of social, language attitudes, and possible selves.

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

.73

.57

-.14

.78

.68

.31

.42

.33

.56

.73 .2

6.34

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

SEM path model results showed the relationship of social, language attitudes, and possible selves.

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

.73

.57

-.14

.78

.68

.31

.42

.33

.56

.73 .2

6.34

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

SEM path model results showed the relationship of social, language attitudes, and possible selves.

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

.73

.57

-.14

.78

.68

.31

.42

.33

.56

.73 .2

6.34

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Multiple regression results revealed that a sense of Ideal L2 Self predicted English performance

Variable B β t

Ideal L2 Self 9.34 .28 3.73*

Probable L2 Self -2.61 -.13 -1.57

Ought-to L2 Self 2.56 .10 1.56

TOEIC is the dependent variable (n = 317)

* p < .001

MethodsStudy 1

School A = 395 (Kansai)

School B = 143 (Kanto)

School C = 116 (Hokkaido)

The study comprised 654 science and engineering (S&E) students in Japan.

Apple, Falout, & Hill (in press)

Instrumentation used in the study

A questionnaire of 54 itemsDesigned to measure 11 latent constructs

Used a 6-point Likert scale

Strongly disagree

Strongly agree

A hypothetical model was created to examine linear relationships in the data.

Probable L2 self

Integrative orientation

Interest in English culture

Speaking anxiety

Attitude toward English

Perceived speaking

competence

Desire to speak

English

Perceived social value

Ideal L2 self

Ought-toL2 self

Class-room atmo-

sphere

ResultsStudy 1

Probable L2 self

Integrative orientation

Interest in English culture

Speaking anxiety

Attitude toward English

Perceived speaking

competence

Desire to speak

English

Perceived social value

.72

.11

.20

.58

-.24

.13

.23

.25

.67

.98

.44.90

-.95

.53

-.16

.55

1.41

Ideal L2 self

Ought-toL2 self

Class-room atmo-

sphere

Integrative orientation

Interest in English culture

Class-room atmo-

sphere

Speaking anxiety

Attitude toward English

Perceived speaking

competence

Desire to speak

English

Perceived social value

.72

.11

.20

.58

-.24

.13

.23

.25

.67

.98

.44.90

-.95

.53

-.16

.55

1.41

Ideal L2 self

Ought-toL2 self

Probable L2 self

Desire to speak

English

Interest in English culture

Class-room atmo-

sphere

Speaking anxiety

Attitude toward English

Perceived speaking

competence

Perceived social value

.72

.71

.21

.58

-.24

.13

.21

.20

.71

.29

.48

.56

.53

Ideal L2 self

Ought-toL2 self

.58

.40

Probable L2 self

Final expected degree Number Percent

Junior college 144 27.9

4-year university

173 33.5

Master’s 151 29.2

Doctorate 49 9.5

F(1,3) = 3.60 p = .013

ANOVA revealed significant differences between participants’ final expected degreeOught-to L2 Self is the dependent variable

The post hoc analysis indicated differences between junior college and master’s degree goals.

Final expected degree Number Percent

Junior college 144 27.9

Master’s 151 29.2

t(150) = 3.45 p = .007 d = .38r = .19

mediumsmall / med

Ought-to L2 Self is the dependent variable

DiscussionStudy 1

Ought-to L2 Self was more important than Ideal L2 Self, but Ideal L2 Self led to higher English ability.

Societal obligations to learn English for careers in S&E

Personal interests for friendship and pleasure

Participants have a desire to communicate, but...

Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2 Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.

.31

.42

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Participants have a desire to communicate, but...

Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2 Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.

.31

.42

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

...they have difficulty imagining themselves using English...

Participants have a desire to communicate, but...

Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2 Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.

.31

.42

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

...they have difficulty imagining themselves using English......yet little difficulty agreeing that they have to learn English.

Results indicate that as students mature, their Possible Selves may change

Technician

vs.

Technical specialist?

Results indicate that as students mature, their Possible Selves may change

A matter of age / year of study?

Unresolved issues from previous studies leading to current study1. Small sample size

(54 variables x 20 cases = min. 1008)

2. Limited range of institutions (only 3)

3. Uneven numbers across years of study

4. Not enough TOEIC scores

5. Model was not validated with separate sample after path respecification

MethodsStudy 2 (In progress)

Ages ranged from 19 to 27 (Ave = 20)

N = 310 (university 1st to doctorate)

Pilot study results

84.5% male, 15.5% female

Items did not correlate well with any other factor

Attitude toward English

Pilot study results - findings

A handful of items were skewedRemoved all 4 AE itemsSlightly rewrote 5 items to distinguish Possible Selves

16 institutions

High school 2nd to Master’s 2nd

The study comprises 1,891 science and engineering (S&E) students in Japan.

40-item instrument

The hypothetical model was based on previous research and modified for this study

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Analysis procedures to be followed

1. Pilot the questionnaire (completed)

2. Descriptive statistics (used for screening data)

3. Factor analysis (to determine item strength)

4. Structural equation modeling (to determine relationships among factors)

5. Multiple regression (to examine predictive quality)

Preliminary ResultsStudy 2 (In progress)

52 student responses removed due to incomplete or patterned responsesAges ranged from 15 to 63 years old (Ave: 19)

Data screening reduced the size to 1,839

79% male, 20% female

37% had traveled overseas

5% had lived overseas

Travel / overseas items showed a lack of international / intercultural experience

1.3% had most of their schooling overseas

Participants’ English ability level was measured by TOEIC and/or TOEIC Bridge866 reported TOEIC scores

Bridge scores were transformed into TOEIC for comparison

Average TOEIC score = 388.16

Correlational analyses showed strong relationships between variablesTop 3 correlated factors for the Possible Selves

Ideal L2 SelfProbable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Internat’l Friendship(r = .64)

Internat’l Friendship(r = .69)

Perceived Social Value(r = .72)

Speaking Competence(r = .60)

Interest in Culture(r = .56)

Internat’l Friendship(r = .48)

Interest in Culture(r = .61)

Perceived Social Value(r = .53)

Exploratory Factor Analysis (FA) demonstrated mixing of items

Ought-to L2 Self, Perceived Social Values, Probable L2 Self items loaded onto same factor

Probable L2 Self items also loaded onto other factors

Why?

Exploratory Factor Analysis (FA) is based on correlations among factors

Correlations among the Possible Selves factors are strong, making it difficult for FA to separate them

Ideal L2 Self Probable L2 Self (r = .73)

Ought-to L2 Self Probable L2 Self (r = .63)

Implications(based on previous

studies)

Potential solutions to improve motivation

Classroom Atmosphere

influences competence, interest, desire, and ultimately Ideal L2 Self

Classroom atmosphere

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

Ideal L2 Self

Potential solutions to improve motivation

Examples:

1.Pair/group work

2.Classroom physical design

3.Teach no single answer

Classroom Atmosphere

Potential solutions to improve motivation

CurriculumChanges

Increases social value of English, eases monotony of lessons

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Potential solutions to improve motivation

CurriculumChanges

Examples:

1.Allow students to mix more year to year

2.Put S&E students together with other majors

Potential solutions to improve motivation

Connect English to Real World

Increases social value of English, provides clearer sense of purpose for Ideal Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Ideal L2 Self

Potential solutions to improve motivation

Connect English to Real World

Increases social value of English, provides clearer sense of purpose for Ideal Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Ideal L2 Self

Potential solutions to improve motivation

Connect English to Real World

Examples:

1.Learn from experiences of Japanese in S&E industry

2.Communicate with foreign S&E counterparts

3.Solve problems together

Future ResultsStudy 2 (In progress)

Model confirmation of previous studies using different groups of students

• Technical college students

• Undergraduate students

• Graduate students

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Model confirmation of previous studies using different groups of students

• Or, using a demographic variable (age, expected final degree, etc.)

Classroom atmosphere

Speaking anxiety

Interest in English culture

International friendship

Perceived speaking

competence

Ideal L2 Self

Probable L2 Self

Ought-to L2 Self

Age

Regressional analysis to determine predictive capability of English proficiency

• Previous study showed Ideal L2 Self as predictor of TOEIC

Will an increased sample size from more schools (N = 866) show the same results?

Variable B β t

Ideal L2 Self 9.34 .28 3.73*

Probable L2 Self -2.61 -.13 -1.57

Ought-to L2 Self 2.56 .10 1.56

(Apple et al, 2012)

N = 317

Qualitative stage of the project (2013~2014) includes follow-up interviews• Currently 150+ students volunteered

• Interviews will occur 4 times, half-year intervals

When do science students develop a sense of an Ideal L2 Self?

What factors are involved?

How can ESP instructors help students develop an L2 Self from “I have to” to “I can imagine myself using”?

Glen A. HillObihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

Motivational Self of EFL science students in

Japan

Joseph FaloutNihon University, College of Science and Technology

Matthew AppleNara National College of Technology

Thank you for your attention

Glen A. HillObihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

Acknowledgments

Joseph FaloutNihon University, College of Science and Technology

Matthew AppleNara National College of Technology

The main study in this presentation was funded by a JSPS Grant-in-Aid (General C)

and generous contributions of time and data collecting by EFL instructors across Japan

Japan is a “black hole” of scientific research (IEEE Spectrum, Sept 2012).

Few scientists coming in… even fewer going out…

The Rasch model

(Rasch, 1960)

The Rating Scale Model

(Andrich, 1978)

Reliability and separation scores

Item-person map for all constructs

Rasch principal components analysis of item residuals (first contrast)