ModelsBy: Kevin Thompson

Servant Leadership – is a paradox: both service

and influence

Matthew 23:11King James Version (KJV)

•11 But he that is greatest among you shall be your servant.

Servant Leadership Defined

• Greenleaf Definition: “Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one wants

to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. . . . The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test . . . is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become a servant? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?”

Model of Servant Leadership (Liden et al., 2008

• Antecedent Conditions (3)• Context and culture

• Organizational context• Dimensions of culture (e.g., power distance)

• Leader attributes • Traits interact with ability to engage in servant leadership

(e.g., moral development, emotional intelligence)• Follower receptivity

• Some subordinates do not want to work with servant leaders• When matched with followers who desire it, servant leadership

has a positive impact on performance and organizational citizenship behavior

How Does Servant Leadership Work?

• It is different from many other leadership theories.

• It is concerned with putting followers first and the outcomes that are likely to emerge.

• It works best when leaders are altruistic and have a strong motivation to help others.

• It is important for followers to be receptive to this style of leadership.

• It results in community and societal change.

Servant Leader Behaviors (7)

• Conceptualizing

• Thorough understanding of the organization

• Ex. Senior nursing supervisor in emergency room

• Emotional healing

• Recognizing others’ problems and taking the time to address them

• Ex. Hospice priest on Chicago’s south side

• Putting followers first

• Ex. Widely published health education professor

• Helping followers grow and succeed

• Knowing followers’ professional or personal goals

• Behaving ethically

• Doing the right thing in the right way

• Empowering

• Allowing followers the freedom to be independent, make decisions on their own, and be self-sufficient

• Creating value for the community

• Intentionally giving back to the community

• Encouraging followers to volunteer for community service

Servant Leader Behaviors (7)

Strengths

• Makes altruism the central component of the leadership process.

• Provides a counterintuitive approach to the use of influence. Leaders should share control.

• It is not a panacea. It may not be effective when subordinates are not open to being guided, supported, and empowered.

CRITICISMS

• Because the name appears contradictory, SL may be seen as whimsical, or not really “leadership.”

• Researchers are unable to reach consensus on a common definition or theoretical framework for SL.

• The prescriptive overtone suggests that good leaders “put others first,” which conflicts with other principles of leadership such as directing, concern for production, and so on. It can also sound moralistic, which may deter some researchers.

• Conceptualizing is not unique to servant leaders. It is unclear why it is included in this model.

Authentic Leadership Description

• Authentic Leadership – focuses on whether leadership is genuine

• Interest in Authentic Leadership

• Increasing in recent times due to social upheavals

• People longing for trustworthy leaders

• Identified with transformational leadership research not often studied separately

DEFINITIONS• Intrapersonal Definition:

• Leadership based on self-concept and how self-concept relates to actions (Shamir & Eilam, 2005)

• Relies on the life story of the leader

• Three Authentic Leadership Characteristics:

• ALs exhibit genuine leadership

• ALs lead from conviction

• ALs are originals, not copies

• Interpersonal Definition:

• Leadership is created by leaders and followers together (Eagly, 2005)

• It is a reciprocal process because leaders affect followers and followers affect leaders

Strengths

• Fulfills society’s expressed need for trustworthy leadership. Fills a void in an uncertain world.

• Provides broad guidelines for those who want to become authentic leaders. Both practical and theoretical approaches provide a map.

• Like transformational and servant leadership, AL has an explicit moral dimension.

• Unlike traits that only some people exhibit, everyone can learn to be more authentic.

• Can be measured using an established instrument (ALQ).

Criticisms

• The theory is still in the formative stages, so some concepts in the practical approaches are not fully developed or substantiated.

• The moral component of AL is not fully explained. It’s unclear how higher values such as justice inform authentic leadership.

• The link between authentic leadership and positive organizational outcomes is unclear. It is also not clear whether AL is sufficient to achieve organizational goals.

Adaptive Leadership

• Adaptive Leadership:• Focuses on the adaptations required of people in response

to changing environments• Stresses the activities of the leader in relation to the

work of followers in the contexts in which they find themselves

• Encourages effective change across multiple levels: self, organizational, community, and societal

• Framework developed largely by Heifetz and associates

Definition

• “The practice of mobilizing people to tackle tough challenges and thrive.”

• Adaptive leaders:

• Mobilize

• Motivate

• Organize

• Orient

• Focus the attention of others

How Does Adaptive Leadership Work?

• Focus is on engaging individuals to do adaptive work

• Leaders support followers during changes in the environment

• Leader steps back from situation to gain fresh perspective.

• Leader decides whether challenges are technical or adaptive.

• If technical, leader uses authority and expertise to solve.

• If adaptive, leader uses several prescribed behaviors to move the adaptive

process forward.

Strengths

• In contrast to other leadership theories, AL takes a process approach; leadership is a complex transaction between leaders and followers.

• AL is follower centered. Adaptive leaders mobilize people to engage in adaptive work.

• Helps followers deal with conflicting values that emerge in changing work environments.

• Prescribes useful leadership behaviors.

• Contributes concept of a “holding environment” as an integral part of the leadership process.

Criticisms

• Very little empirical research has been conducted to test the claims of the theory.

• Model needs to be refined; relationships between factors need to be clarified.

• AL is too wide ranging and abstract.

• Doesn’t directly explain how AL incorporates a moral dimension. Unclear how doing adaptive work leads to socially useful outcomes.

Transformational Leadership

• Process - TL is a process that changes and transforms individuals

• Influence - TL involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected

• Core elements - TL is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals

• Encompassing approach – TL describes a wide range of leadership influence where followers and leaders are bound together in the transformation process

Transformational Leader Defined

Process of

engaging with others

to create a connection

that increases

motivation

and morality in both the

leader and the follower

Leader is attentive to the needs and motives of followers and tries to

help followers reach their fullest potential.

• Mohandas Gandhi raised

the hopes and demands of

millions of his people and

in the process was changed

himself

• Ryan White raised people’s

awareness about AIDS

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

TRANSACTIONAL

Leadership Defined(Burns, 1978)

Focuses on the

exchanges

that occur

between leaders

and their followers

- No new taxes = votes.

- Turn in assignments =

grade.

- Surpass goals = promotion.

The exchange dimension is

so common that you can

observe it at all walks of

life.Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

PSEUDOTRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER (Burns,1978)

Leaders who are

transforming but in a

negative way

self-consumed,

exploitive; power-

oriented, with

warped moral values

includes leaders like

Adolph Hitler

Saddam Hussein

Focuses on

the

leader’s

own interests

rather than the

interests of his or

her followers

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Transformational Leadership

• TLs empower and nurture followers

• TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models for followers

• TLs commonly create a vision

• TLs require leaders to become social architects

• TLs build trust & foster collaboration

• Describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out significant changes in organizations

Overall ScopeFocus of Transformational

Leaders

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Types of Leadership Defined (Burns, 1978)

TRANSACTIONALFocuses on the

exchangesthat occur

between leadersand their followers

TRANSFORMATIONALProcess of

engaging with othersto create a connection that

increases motivation and morality in

both the leader and the follower

Focuses on the

leader’s

own interests rather than

the interests of his or her

followers

PSEUDO-

TRANSFORMATIONAL

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Transformational Leadership & Charisma

• Charisma - A special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947)

• Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976)

• Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have specific charismatic effects on their followers

Definition

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Strengths

• Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.

• Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.

• Process focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.

• Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models.

• Emphasizes followers. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.

• Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.

Criticisms

• Lacks conceptual clarity• Dimensions are not clearly delimited• Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership

• Measurement questioned• Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the

transformational model• No causal link shown between transformational leaders and changes in

followers or organizations• TL is elitist and antidemocratic• Suffers from heroic leadership bias• Has the potential to be abused

Team Leader

• A team leader is someone who provides guidance, instruction, direction and leadership to a group of other individuals (the team) for the purpose of achieving a key result or group of aligned results.

Team Leaders Description

• Team • Group of organizational members who are interdependent, share

common goals, and coordinate activities to accomplish those goals• Can meet face-to-face or be virtual• “Team-based and technology enabled” = newer organizational

structures• Outcomes of Effective Teams

• Greater productivity• More effective use of resources• Better decisions and problem solving• Better-quality products and services• Greater innovation and creativity (Parker, 1990)

• Model provides leader or designated team member with a mental model to help

• Diagnose team problems, and

• Take appropriate action to correct team problems

• Effective team performance begins with leader’s mental model of the situation

• Mental model reflects

• Components of the problem

• Environmental & organizational contingencies

Team Leadership Model

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Strengths

• Focus on real-life organizational group work; model is useful for teaching

• Provides a cognitive guide that assists leaders in designing and maintaining effective teams

• Recognizes the changing role of leaders and followers in organizations

• Can be used as a tool in group leader selection

Criticisms

• Model is incomplete. Additional skills might be needed

• May not be practical as the model is complex and doesn’t provide easy answers for difficult leader decisions

• Fails to consider teams that have distributed leadership, where team members have a range of skills, and where roles may change

• More focus required on how to teach and provide skill development in areas of diagnosis and action taking

Situational Leadership

• Situational leadership refers to when the leader or manager of an organization must adjust his style to fit the development level of the followers he is trying to influence.

Situational Approach

• Assumes that subordinates vacillate along the developmental continuum of competence and commitment

• Leader effectiveness depends on -

• assessing subordinate’s developmental position, and

• adapting his/her leadership style to match subordinate developmental level

“The situational approach requires leaders to demonstrate a strong degree of flexibility.”

Focus

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Strengths

• Focus on real-life organizational group work; model is useful for teaching

• Provides a cognitive guide that assists leaders in designing and maintaining effective teams

• Recognizes the changing role of leaders and followers in organizations

• Leader flexibility. Situational Leadership stresses that effective leaders are those who can change their styles based on task requirements and subordinate needs.

Criticisms

• Lack of an empirical foundation raises theoretical considerations regarding the validity of the approach.

• Further research is required to determine how commitment and competence are conceptualized for each developmental level.

• Fails to adequately address the issue of one-to-one versus group leadership in an organizational setting

• Replication studies fail to support basic prescriptions of the Situational Leadership® model.

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Focus of Trait Approach

• Focuses exclusively on leader

• What traits leaders exhibit

• Who has these traits

Organizations use personality assessments to find “right” people

• Assumption - will increase organizational effectiveness

• Specify characteristics/traits for specific positions

• Personality assessment measures for “fit”

• Instruments: LTQ, Myers-Briggs

Leader Personality Assessments

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Strengths

• Intuitively appealing• Perception that leaders

are different in that they possess special traits

• People “need” to view leaders as gifted

• Credibility due to a century of research support

• Highlights leadership component in the leadership process

• Deeper level understanding of how leader/personality is related to leadership process

• Provides benchmarks for what to look for in a leader

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Criticisms

• Fails to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits

• Endless lists have emerged

• Doesn’t take into account situational effects

• Leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another situation

• List of most important leadership traits is highly subjective

• Much subjective experience & observations serve as basis for identified leadership traits

• Research fails to look at traits in relationship to leadership outcomes

• Not useful for training & development

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Skills Approach Leadership

• The skills theory grew from the obvious flaw in the trait approach; traits are relatively fixed. ... The three-skill approach argued that effective leadership required three skills: technical, human, and conceptual skills. Technical skill refers to proficiency in a specific activity or type of work

Strengths

• First approach to conceptualize and create a structure of the process of leadership around skills

• Describing leadership in terms of skills makes leadership available to everyone

• Provides an expansive view of leadership that incorporates wide variety of components (i.e., problem-solving skills, social judgment skills)

• Provides a structure consistent with leadership education programs

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Criticisms

• Breadth of the skills approach appears to extendbeyond the boundaries of leadership, making it more general, less precise

• Weak in predictive value; does not explain how skills lead to effective leadership performance

• Skills model includes individual attributes that are trait-like

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Behavioral Approach Description

• Emphasizes the behaviorof the leader

• Focuses exclusively on what leaders do and how they act

Composed of two general kinds of Behaviors

Task behaviors

Facilitate goal accomplishment: Help

group members achieve objectives

Relationship behaviors

Help subordinates feel comfortable with

themselves, each other, and the situation

Perspective Definition

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Ohio State Studies

• Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

• Identify number of times leaders engaged in specific behaviors

• 150 questions

• Participant settings (military, industrial, educational)

• Results

• Particular clusters of behaviors were typical of leaders

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Strengths

• Behavioral approach marked a major shift in leadership research from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors and actions of leaders

• Broad range of studies on leadership style validates and gives credibility to the basic tenets of the approach

• At conceptual level, a leader’s style is composed of two major types of behaviors: task and relationship

• The behavioral approach is heuristic—leaders can learn a lot about themselves and how they come across to others by trying to see their behaviors in light of the task and relationship dimensions

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Criticisms

• Research has not adequately demonstrated how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes

• No universal style of leadership that could be effective in almost every situation

• Implies that the most effective leadership style isHigh-High style (i.e., high task/high relationship); research finding support is limited

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Scenario