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MIXTURES INVOLVING WATER

• THREE TYPES

• SUSPENSIONS

• COLLOIDS

• SOLUTIONS

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• THE DIFFERENCE AMONG THESE IS THE SIZE OF THE PARTICLES OF THE SOLUTE

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SUSPENSION

• MIXTURE CONTAINING LARGE PARTICLES IN A SOLVENT

• PARTICLES WILL SETTLE OUT

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• PARTICLES REFLECT LIGHT WHEN A BEAM IS DIRECTED THROUGH THE MIXTURE (CALLED THE TYNDALL EFFECT)

• EXAMPLE: MUDDY WATER

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COLLOID

• MIXTURE OF MEDIUM SIZED PARTICLES IN A SOLVENT

• PARTICLES WILL NOT SETTLE OUT

• SHOWS THE TYNDALL EFFECT

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SOLUTIONS

• MIXTURE OF SMALL PARTICLES (ATOMS, IONS, MOLECULES) IN A SOLVENT

• PARTICLES WILL NOT SETTLE OUT

• NO TYNDALL EFFECT

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SOLUTION TERMS

• SOLUBLE – DOES DISSOLVE

• INSOLUBLE – DOES NOT DISSOLVE

• SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE – VERY LITTLE DISSOLVES

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• AQUEOUS – WATER IS THE SOLVENT

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SOLUTION TERMS CONTINUED

• MISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CAN DISSOLVE EACH OTHER (EX. WATER AND ALCOHOL)

• IMMISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CANNOT DISSOLVE EACH OTHER (EX. OIL AND WATER)

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• COMPLETELY MISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CAN DISSOLVE EACH OTHER IN ANY AMOUNTS

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SATURATED SOLUTION

• A SOLUTION THAT HAS THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN IT AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE

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• IF MORE SOLUTE IS ADDED, IT WILL NOT DISSOLVE (FALLS TO THE BOTTOM)

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UNSATURATED SOLUTION

• A SOLUTION THAT HAS LESS THAN THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT IT CAN DISSOLVE AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE

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SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION

• A SOLUTION THAT HAS MORE SOLUTE DISSOLVED THAN IT SHOULD AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE

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SOLUBILITY

• THE AMOUNT OF A SUBSTANCE THAT CAN BE DISSOLVED IN 100 GRAMS OF SOLVENT TO MAKE A SATURATED SOLUTION AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE

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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON

SOLUBILITY• SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS

USUALLY INCREASES AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES

• SOLUBILITY OF GASES DECREASES AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES

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CONCENTRATION

• THE AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN A GIVEN AMOUNT OF SOLUTION

• MANY WAYS TO EXPRESS CONCENTRATION

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PERCENT BY MASS

CONC (IN %) =

(100%)_MASS OF SOLUTE

MASS OF SOLUTION

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MASS OF SOLUTE

MASS OF SOLUTE =

(CONC)( MASS OF SOLN)

100%

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EXAMPLE 1

WHAT IS CONCENTRATION WHEN 5 GRAMS OF SALT IS DISSOLVED IN 95 GRAMS OF WATER?

5 g / (5 g + 95 g)= 5/100= 0.05 = 5%

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EXAMPLE 2

WHAT IS CONCENTRATION WHEN 5 GRAMS OF SALT IS DISSOLVED IN 50 GRAMS OF WATER?

5 g / (5 g + 50 g)= 5 / 55= 0.09 = 9%

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EXAMPLE 3

HOW MUCH SALT IS NEEDED TO MAKE 50 GRAMS OF 10% SOLUTION?

= (10%)(50 g) / 100%= 500 g / 1005 g

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EXAMPLE 4

HOW MUCH SALT IS NEEDED TO MAKE 250 GRAMS OF 7% SOLUTION

= (7%)(250 g) / 100%= 1750 g / 10017.5 g

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PARTS CONCENTRATION

• DEFINED AS MASS OF SOLUTE / MASS OF SOLUTION

• 1 g OF SOLUTE / 100 g OF SOLUTION IS 1 PART PER HUNDRED

• EXPRESSED AS 1 pph

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PARTS ABBREVIATIONS

• pph IS PARTS PER HUNDRED

• ppth IS PARTS PER THOUSAND

• ppm IS PARTS PER MILLION

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• ppb IS PARTS PER BILLION

• ppt IS PARTS PER TRILLION

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RELATING % AND PARTS CONCENTRATIONS

1% = 1/100

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EXAMPLE 5

EXPRESS THE CONCENTRATION OF AN 8% SOLUTION IN PPM

8% = 8/100= 80,000/1,000,000= 80,000 PPM

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EXAMPLE 6

EXPRESS 40% IN PPTH

40% = 40/100

= 400/1000

= 400 PPTH

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EXAMPLE 7

EXPRESS 20 PPH IN %

20 PPH = 20/100

= 20%

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EXAMPLE 8

EXPRESS 350 PPM IN %

350 PPM = 350/1,000,000

= 0.035/100

= 0.035 %

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CHEMICALS USED IN HOMES AND ON FARMS

• FERTILIZERS

• PESTICIDES

• MANY ARE USED AS SOLUTIONS OR SUSPENSIONS

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PLANT NUTRIENTS

• DIVIDED INTO MACRONUTRIENTS, SECONDARY NUTRIENTS, AND MICRONUTRIENTS

• MAY BE IN THE SOIL BUT MAY NOT BE IN A FORM THAT PLANTS CAN USE

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MACRONUTRIENTS

• ELEMENTS PLANTS NEED IN LARGE AMOUNTS

• CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, & POTASSIUM

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• CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN ARE READILY AVAILABLE FROM AIR AND WATER

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SECONDARY NUTRIENTS

• ELEMENTS NEEDED IN MODERATE AMOUNTS

• CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, AND SULFUR

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MICRONUTRIENTS

• ELEMENTS NEEDED BY PLANTS IN SMALL AMOUNTS

• BORON, CHLORINE, COBALT, COPPER, IRON, MANGANESE, SODIUM, MOLYBDENUM, & ZINC

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FERTILIZERS

• SUBSTANCES USED TO ADD NUTRIENTS TO SOIL

• MOST INCLUDE NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, & POTASSIUM

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• MAY INCLUDE SOME SECONDARY & MICRONUTRIENTS

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FERTILIZERS CONTINUED

• THESE NUTRIENTS ARE ABSORBED BY PLANTS AS IONS

• FERTILIZERS MUST BREAK DOWN INTO USABLE IONS

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USABLE IONS

• NITROGEN IS ABSORBED AS NH4

+1 OR NO3-1

• PHOSPHORUS (ALSO CALLED PHOSPHATE) IS ABSORBED IN AS H2PO4

-1

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• POTASSIUM (ALSO CALLED POTASH) IS ABSORBED AS K+1

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NITROGEN SOURCES

• SOURCES INCLUDE AMMONIACAL NITROGEN, NITRATES, AND UREA

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AMMONIACAL NITROGEN

• MEANS THE AMMONIUM CATION (NH4

+1)

• USUALLY IS NH4NO3 OR (NH4)2SO4

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NITRATE

• THE ANION NO3-1

• USUALLY IS NH4NO3 OR Ca(NO3)2

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UREA

• H2NCONH2

• REACTS WITH WATER TO FORM NH4

+1

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PHOSPHORUS SOURCES

• SOURCES INCLUDE ROCK PHOSPHATE (NATURAL), SUPER PHOSPHATE, OR AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE

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• ROCK PHOSPHATE IS Ca3(PO4)2 COMBINED WITH OTHER CALCIUM COMPOUNDS

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PHOSPHORUS SOURCES CONTINUED

• SUPERPHOSPHATE IS Ca(H2PO4)2 MIXED WITH CaSO4 (ALSO CALLED GYPSUM)

• AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE IS NH4H2PO4

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POTASSIUM SOURCES

• POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl), POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4), POTASSIUM NITRATE (KNO3), & POTASSIUM MAGNESIUM SULFATE (KMgSO4)

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FERTILIZER LABELING

• DESCRIBED BY 3 NUMBERS THAT INDICATE THE PERCENT COMPOSITION OF EACH MACRONUTRIENT

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EXAMPLE

• 5-10-8 MEANS 5% NITROGEN, 10% PHOSPHORUS, AND 8% POTASSIUM

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FERTILIZER ANALYSES

• LABEL IS REQUIRED TO SHOW A GUARANTEED ANALYSIS

• LISTS PHOSPHORUS (OR PHOSPHATE), POTASSIUM (OR POTASH), AND ALL FORMS OF NITROGEN

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• SHOWS PERCENT COMPOSITION OF EACH NUTRIENT

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PROBLEMS WITH FERTILIZERS

• NUTRIENTS IN RUNOFF CAUSE EXCESSIVE PLANT GROWTH THAT DECREASES OXYGEN FOR AQUATIC LIFE

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• CONTAIN TRACE AMOUNTS OF UNDESIRABLE HEAVY METALS SUCH AS ARSENIC, CADMIUM, MERCURY, NICKEL, AND LEAD

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PROBLEMS CONTINUED

• CAN RUN OFF IN RAIN TO CONTAMINATE STREAMS AND PONDS

• HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATE AND MAY KILL AQUATIC LIFE

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PROBLEMS CONTINUED

• OFTEN LIFEFORMS DO NOT HAVE A WAY TO RID THESE FROM THEIR BODIES – SO THEY STAY THERE

• THIS IS CALLED BIOACCUMULATION

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• SOME HEAVY METALS MOVE UP THE FOOD CHAIN AS AQUATIC LIFE ARE EATEN

• THIS IS CALLED BIOMAGNIFICATION

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PESTICIDES

• ANY CHEMICAL USED TO KILL OR CONTROL UNWANTED FUNGI, ANIMALS, OR PLANTS

• UNWANTED PLANTS ARE CALLED WEEDS

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PESTICIDE TYPES

• INSECTICIDES

• FUNGICIDES

• RODENTICIDES

• HERBICIDES

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PESTICIDE EFFECTS

• MANY PESTICIDES ARE NOT SPECIFIC AND CAN KILL NON-TARGETED ORGANISMS

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• MANY PESTICIDES CAN CAUSE HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS WHEN HANDLING – SO SPECIAL SAFETY TRAINING AND LICENSING IS REQUIRED

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INSECTICIDES

• HALF-LIFE IS THE TIME FOR HALF OF THE CHEMICAL TO HAVE DECOMPOSED INTO SOMETHING ELSE

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• THOSE WITH LONG HALF-LIVES ARE CALLED PERSISTENT

• RESIDUES AFTER DECOMPOSITION MAY BE HARMFUL

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ORGANOCHLORIDES

• CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS ARE COMPLEX ARRANGEMENTS OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND CHLORINE

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• EXAMPLE: DDT (WAS 1ST SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDE)

• DICHLORODIPHENYLTRICHLOROETHANE

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ORGANOCHLORIDES CONTINUED

• OTHERS INCLUDE CHLORDANE, AND DIELDRIN

• ARE NEUROTOXINS• HAVE VERY LONG HALF-

LIVES• THEY BIOACCUMULATE

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• MOST ARE NOT USED ANY MORE BECAUSE OF NEGATIVE EFFECTS

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ORGANOPHOSPHATES

• NEUROTOXINS• HAVE SHORT HALF-LIVES

(REQUIRE FREQUENT APPLICATIONS)

• VERY DANGEROUS TO FARM WORKERS

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• DO NOT BIOACCUMULATE

• EXAMPLES: MALATHION, ORTHENE, DIAZINON

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CARBAMATES

• NEUROTOXINS

• HAVE SHORT HALF-LIVES

• DO NOT BIOACCUMULATE

• EXAMPLE CARBAMATES: SEVIN AND ALDICARB

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HERBICIDES

• USED TO CONTROL UNWANTED PLANTS

• USED ON POWER-LINE AND RAILROAD RIGHTS-OF-WAY, HIGHWAYS, LAWNS, AND CROPLAND

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• USED MOSTLY TO SAVE TIME AND COST OF WEEDING

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HERBICIDES CONTINUED

• TWO MAJOR TYPES• ONE CAUSES PLANTS TO

OUTGROW THEIR FOOD PRODUCING CAPABILITY (GROW TOO FAST AND DIE)

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• EXAMPLE: 2,4 D (IN MOST LAWN WEED KILLERS)

• 2,4 DICHLOROPHENOXYACETIC ACID

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HERBICIDES CONTINUED

• OTHER TYPE ATTACKS CELLS OR PROCESSES IN PLANTS TO KILL THEM

• EXAMPLE: ROUNDUP

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THE PERFECT PESTICIDE

• INEXPENSIVE• AFFECT ONLY TARGET

ORGANISM• SHORT HALF LIFE• BREAK DOWN INTO

HARMLESS SUBSTANCES• DOES NOT EXIST!

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PROBLEMS WITH PESTICIDES

• NOT SPECIFIC – CAN KILL BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS

• INSECTS OFTEN DEVELOP A RESISTANCE TO PESTICIDES

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• BIOACCUMULATION (ESPECIALLY FATTY AREAS)

• BIOMAGNIFICATION

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PROBLEMS CONTINUED

• DDT EXAMPLE – ALMOST WIPED OUT EAGLES DUE TO BIOMAGNIFICATION

• SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS

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PROBLEMS CONTINUED

• THEY ARE SAFE IF PROPERLY APPLIED, BUT DEATHS HAVE OCCURRED WHEN IMPROPERLY APPLIED

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• MOST PEOPLE HAVE EXPOSURE TO SMALL QUANTITIES OR RESIDUES IN FOOD OR IN THE ENVIRONMENT

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AIR COMPOSITION

• 78% NITROGEN• 21% OXYGEN• TRACE AMOUNTS OF

CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER VAPOR, ARGON, AND FEW OTHERS

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POLLUTION

• SOMETHING PRODUCED BY HUMANS THAT INTERFERES WITH OUR WELL BEING

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• WHILE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS PRODUCE SIMILAR PROBLEMS, THEY ARE NOT MAN MADE POLLUTION

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AIR POLLUTION

• GASES OR SMALL PARTICLES RELEASED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE

• THESE ARE CALLED PRIMARY POLLUTANTS

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• SECONDARY POLLUTANTS ARE THINGS FORMED BY THE INTERACTION OF PRIMARY POLLUTANTS

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PRIMARY POLLUTANTS

• CARBON MONOXIDE

• HYDROCARBONS

• PARTICULATES

• SULFUR DIOXIDE

• NITROGEN OXIDES

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CARBON MONOXIDE SOURCES

• CREATED FROM INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARBONS AND TOBACCO SMOKE

• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST

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• SMOKING TOBACCO IS THE NEXT GREATEST SOURCE

• FACTORIES AND POWER PLANTS ALSO PRODUCE SOME

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CO HAZARDS

• BREATHING AIR CONTAINING 0.001% FOR SEVERAL HOURS CAN CAUSE DEATH

• ATTACHES TO HEMOGLOBIN AND PREVENTS OXYGEN TRANSPORT

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• SMALLER DOSES CAUSE HEADACHE, DROWSINESS, & BLURRED VISION

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CO REMOVAL

• REACTS WITH OXYGEN TO FORM CARBON DIOXIDE

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HYDROCARBONS

• RELEASED BY EVAPORATION OF FUEL OR REMNANTS OF INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST

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• REFINERIES AND OTHER INDUSTRY ALSO RELEASE IT

• NOT A GREAT PROBLEM BY THEMSELVES

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HYDROCARBONS CONTINUED

• THEY WASH OUT AND CAUSE AN OILY FILM ON SURFACES

• A NUISANCE PROBLEM

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• THEY REACT WITH OZONE TO FORM SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

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VOLATILE

• MEANS EASILY EVAPORATES

• VOCs ARE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• MANY FUELS ARE VOCs

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PARTICULATES

• SMALL PIECES OF SOLID MATERIALS

• SMOKE FROM FIRES• BITS OF ASBESTOS FROM

BRAKE LININGS AND INSULATION

• DUST

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• ASH FROM INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

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PARTICULATES CONTINUED

• SOME ARE HARMLESS

• OTHERS ARE CARCINOGENIC (ASBESTOS)

• VERY VISIBLE

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• ACT AS NUCLEI FOR THE FORMATION OF DROPLETS OF WATER AND OTHER DISSOLVED POLLUTANTS

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PARTICULATE SIZES

• MICRON – MEANS MICROMETER

• EQUALS 0.000001 m OR 0.0001 cm

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• PARTICLES BETWEEN 10 AND 2.5 MICRONS ARE COARSE AND ARE EASILY FILTERED BY THE BODY

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• PARTICLES < 2.5 MICRONS ARE FINE PARTICLES AND ARE NOT EASILY FILTERED BY THE BODY

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SULFUR DIOXIDE

• PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS (IMPURE HYDROCARBONS)

• SHARP ODOR• IRITATES RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM

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• REACTS WITH WATER AND OXYGEN TO FORM SULFURIC AND SULFUROUS ACIDS

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NITROGEN OXIDES

• NO AND NO2

• FORMED DURING COMBUSTION IN AIR

• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST

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• REACT WITH WATER & OXYGEN TO FORM NITRIC AND NITROUS ACIDS

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SMOG

• MIXTURE OF SMOKE AND FOG

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SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

• PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG• MADE FROM NITROGEN

OXIDES AND HYDROCARBONS

• REACTION CAUSED BY UV LIGHT

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• PRODUCES OZONE AND PEROXYACETYLNITRATES

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CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

• CATALYTIC CONVERTERS ADDED TO REDUCE HYDROCARBONS, NITROGEN OXIDES, AND CARBON MONOXIDE FROM CARS

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• POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION (PCV) VALVES REDUCE HYDROCARBON LOSS

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CONTROL CONTINUED

• GAS CAPS WITH AIR POLLUTION CONTROL VALVES REDUCE HYDROCARBON LOSS

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• INDUSTRIAL PLANTS FITTED WITH SCRUBBERS TO REDUCE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

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AIR POLLUTION RELATED PROBLEMS

• BAD QUALITY AIR

• ACID RAIN

• GLOBAL WARMING

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BAD QUALITY AIR

• DIRECT HEALTH PROBLEM FOR PEOPLE

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ACID RAIN

• SULFUR DIOXIDE AND NITROGEN OXIDES REACT TO FORM ACIDS

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• THESE DISSOLVE IN VARIOUS FORMS OF PRECIPITATION INCLUDING RAIN AND SNOW

• AFFECTS PLANTS AND BODIES OF WATER

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GLOBAL WARMING

• CAUSED BY INCREASED AMOUNTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE, CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS, METHANE, AND DINITROGEN OXIDE

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• CO2 ABSORBS ENERGY FROM THE SUN AND RADIATES IT TO WARM THE ATMOSPHERE

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GLOBAL WARMING CONTINUED

• THE OTHER GASES REACT WITH OZONE TO FORM OXYGEN

• OZONE ABSORBS UV RAYS FROM THE SUN

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• LESS OZONE MEANS MORE UV RAYS PENETRATE TO THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE AND THE SURFACE – INCREASING AIR TEMPERATURE

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CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS

• HYDROCARBONS WITH CHLORINE AND/OR FLUORINE SUBSTITUTED FOR HYDROGEN

• EXAMPLE: FREON-12 (CF2Cl2)