MIDTERM REVIEW

Honors Biology 2012

Scientific Method Concept Map Bubbles in a concept map are key terms Arrows on a concept map show how big

ideas are linked with short phrases

Experimental Design

Independent Variable “What I change”

Dependent Variable “What I count or measure”

Experimental Group Group that receives the

treatment Control Group

Kept unchanged for comparison Constants

Keep all things the same except I.V.

Redi’s experiment

1. Redi notived that when flies landed on exposed meat, maggots would appear on the meat later. Redi ws able to show that living things come from other living things. Complete an outline of his experiment:

Redi’s Experiment

Problem - Where does life come from?

Hypothesis - If Life comes only from other life then the meat that is covered should not have maggots

Procedure

Analysis & Conclusion

Analysis – Yep. Flies and maggots seem to be a connection. No access to flies, no maggots. Meat by itself in the sealed jars does not turn into maggots.

Conclusion – Maggots are baby flies. All life comes from other life.

Analysis of Redi’s experiment2. In his (Redi's) experiment the

independent variable was the different treatments of the jars - lids, cloth netting, no lids

3. In Redi's experiment the dependent variable was the amount of flies

4. Redi would have begun collecting data as soon as he set up his experiment because flies are everywhere.

Make flashcards for the following voabulary:

homeostasis pH atoms bonds proteins amino acids carbohydrates monosaccharides

polysaccharides lipids fatty acids nucleic acids nucleotides inorganic organic

homeostasis

A steady balanced state

All body systems balancedHappy critter

pH

A measure of how much H+ (acid) or OH- (base)

atoms

The building blocks of all matter. Made of protons (positive charge) Neutrons (neutral charge) Electrons (negative charge)

Types of bonds

Covalent – shares electrons Ionic – transfer electrons Hydrogen – form b/n slight charge

differences

Covalent bonds involve sharing at least one pair of electrons

Ionic bonds – electrons move from one atom to another creating a charge difference

hydrogen bonds – electrons arenot equally shared in covalent bonds, created charge imbalance that creates attraction between molecules

proteins

Include the following atoms: C, H, O, N, S

Subunit = amino acids Make important cell

structures Enzymes are special

proteins Made by ribosome Fancied up and packaged by

ER & Golgi

Amino acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Amino acids

Carbohydrates

Include the following atoms: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)

Subunit = monosaccharide Important for quick energy

storage/release Cell walls

Glucose is a monosaccharide or a simple sugar

Polysaccharides = many monosaccharides bonded together

Lipids

Include the following atoms C, H, O – not 1:2:1 ratio

Subunits are fatty acids and glycerol Not a true polymer

Important for longer term energy storage/retrieval Also good at insulating, protecting

Nucleic Acids

Include the atoms C, H, O, N, P

Subunit is the nucleotide Types of nucleotides: A, C, T, G, U

DNA = double stranded, RNA = single stranded

Also includes ATP

Organic or Inorganic?

Organic compounds have C-H bonds

organic inorganic

How does this robin maintain homeostasis?

It’s warm blooded, even when it’s cold its body maintains a near constant temperature. This involves internal feedback mechanisms that work in much the same way as a thermostat works in your house. This is what you do, too Temperature Too low? = shivering

produces heat that warms you Temp Too warm? = sweating

cools you off

Common table salt

Ionic bonds - because the Sodium loses an electron to Chlorine

Soap has a pH of 10

pH of 10 = base

Macromolecule chartMacromolecule

Basic unit (monomer)

Other examples

Purpose structure

Carbohydrates

Mono-saccharide

CelluloseChitinGlucoseStarchglycogen

Cell wallQuick energy

See slide 16

Lipids Glycerol + fatty acids

TriglycerideCholestrolFats, oils, waxes

Protectioninsulation

See slide 17

Proteins Amino acids

Keratin (hair)Transport tubes in cell membraneAntibody, enzymes

StrucutreDefense against diseaseSpeed up rxns

See slide 15

Nucleic Acids nucleotide DNARNAATP

Genetic infoProtein synthesisenergy

See slide 18

Make flash cards for the following vocabulary

Nucleus Chromosomes Plasma membrane

(cell membrane) Cell wall Mitochondria Vacuoles Chloroplasts

Ribosomes Magnification Resolution Membrane-bound

organelles Prokaryote eukaryote

Nucleus

Chromosomes

Cell Membrane

Cell Wall

Mitochondria

Vacuoles

Chloroplasts

Ribosomes

Magnification / Resolution

Membrane-bound organelles

Draw an animal cell

Draw a plant cell

Plant cells vs Animal cells

Cell Wall & cell membrane

Chloroplasts Contain

chlorophyll Mitochondria Large central

vacuole

Cell membrane (no cell wall)

Centrioles Mitochondria Smaller vacuoles lysosome

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Draw and Label a Bacterial Cell

Why might chloroplasts be more numerous in a leaf than a stem?

Leaf is the organ of the plant that conducts photosynthesis so it has lots of chloroplasts. Stems don’t do as much photosynthesis, so they don’t have as many chloroplasts.

Why might a muscle cell have more mitochondria?

Muscle cells use a lot of ATP, so they have many mitochondria to provide that ATP by cellular respiration

How are Prokaryotes different from Eukaryotes?

No nucleus No membrane-bound

organelles DNA loose in

cytoplasm Small primitive

ribosomes

DNA in true nucleus Membrane-bound

organelles ER, Golgi, vacuole,

mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc

Larger ribosomes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Both have cell membrane, DNA, ribosomes and cytoplasm

Microscope magnification

Multiply ocular lens x objective lens to get total magnification

Other cartoons of microscopes

Make sure you can identify the parts and how to use a microscope

Make flashcards

Diffusion Osmosis Concentration gradient Passive transport Active transport Semi-permeable membrane (selectively

permeable membrane)

Diffusion

Osmosis

Concentration Gradient

Passive Transport

Active Transport

Semi-permeable Membrane

Identify parts of the cell membrane

Does it let in

EVERYTHING? No! So it’s SEMI-

permeable

Plant cell placed in salt water

Isotonic (same inside and out)

HypOtonic (cell swells – more water outside than inside, water moves in)

Hypertonic (cell shrinks – more water inside than outside, water moves out)

cell in norma

l conditi

ons

cell in pure water

cell in salt

water

Active or Passive? Low to high or high to low?

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Enzyme Substrate Activation energy Temperature Denature catalyst

Catalyst

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy.

This is very important in cells because of the very slow reaction rates of some important biological reactions

Enzyme / Substrate

Enzymes are biological catalysts

Almost always made of protein

Speeds up reaction

The substance that the enzyme works on.

Can be something that is put together or something that is broken up.

Activation Energy

The energy required to get a reaction going.

Denature - Temperature

Because enzymes are made of protein, if they get too hot they can be “cooked” or DENATURED If they get too hot, their structure breaks

down and they stop working

How do enzymes work?

Enzyme Substrate Enzyme

substrate complex

Active site Products

Enzymes are specific. 1 enzyme: 1 substrate

Each enzyme only works on it’s own substrate, not just anything.

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes are reusable

Enzymes don’t get used up – they get used over and over again, sometimes thousands a time a second!

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes are sensitive to temperature.

Too hot & enzyme gets DENATURED (broken)

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes are sensitive to pH.

Too acidic or too basic = denatured. (think ceviche!)

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes speed up reactions

The speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes speed up reactions

The speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes either make a chain or break a chain

Some enzymes build. Some enzymes break down.

Click icon to add picture

Enzymes work like a lock and key

Enzyme = key. Substrate = lock.

Click icon to add picture

The Induced fit model is more accurate.

Lock and key is a gross oversimplification.

Click icon to add picture

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Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis ATP

Aerobic respiration

Uses Oxygen Mitochondria Make WAY more ATP

than anaerobic Gives off CO2

Anaerobic respiration

No oxygen No mitochondria because they need the

oxygen Make WAY less ATP than aerobic Also called Fermentation – two types

Alcoholic like yeast making beer Lactic acid like us

makes muscles sore

Gives off CO2

Scientific formula for cellular respiration

Photosynthesis

Uses Carbon dioxide Uses light energy Happens in the

chloroplast Chloroplast contains

chlorophyll Produces glucose Gives off oxygen

Scientific Equation for Photosynthesis

Nerd tattooof Photosynthesis

Chemosynthesis

Where there’s no light Deep sea vents

Use inorganic chemicals to produce carbohydrates

ATP

The energy molecule used in cells

How important is ATP to cells? ATP is the primary energy currency of

the cell.

Nerd tattooof ATP

Photosynthesis

A water plant is exposed to sunlight and gives off oxygen. What process is it undergoing?

Cellular Respiration

A plant seed germinates, giving off carbon dioxide.What process is it undergoing?

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration (fermentation)

Yeast breaks down sugar in the absence of oxygen. What type of respiration is it undergoing?

What gas is given off? Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Plant in water. What are bubbles?

oxygen

Yeast in dropper with juice. What are bubbles?

Carbon

dioxide

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DNARNAReplicationProtein synthesis

TranscriptionTranslation

MutationAdenineGuanineCytosineThymineUracil

Contribution of Watson and Crick? They figured out the

structure of DNA was a double helix

PS. They got a lot of help from Rosalind Franklin & didn’t give her credit.

They got Nobel Prize. She got nothing.

she died before she could be recognized & Nobels aren’t given posthumously

Rosalind Franklin & Photo 51 This is what

Watson & crick saw that helped them know DNA was a Double Helix.

Photo 51

DNA

Double helix Sugar =

deoxyribose Nucleotides

Adenine Cytosine Guanine Thymine

DNA / RNA comparison

RNA

Single stranded Sugar = ribose Nucleotides

Adenine Cytosine Guanine Uracil

DNA Replication

Said to be “semi-conservative” because you get one old strand & one new strand

Protein Synthesis

Transcription – in nucleus DNA mRNA

Translation – in cytoplasm at ribosome – mRNA protein

Kinds of Mutation

Frameshift Mutation

Can be caused by insertion or deletion Changes reading frame of ribosome

Not only is the amino acid where the mistake happens messed up but every amino acid after is changed.

Big problem

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genetic engineering Electrophoresis recombinant DNA transgenic organisms Cloning DNA fingerprints gene therapy

Genetic Engineering Old School Selective Breeding

Selective Breeding – breeding organisms to produce more useful qualities

Used in foods, animals (pets, farms) Increases the frequency of the desired gene in

a population

Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering – using DNA Technology to increase the frequency of a desired gene in a population

Recombinant DNA

Using DNA fragments from one organism and transplanting the pieces into a second organism

Plants and animals that contain recombinant DNA are called transgenic organisms Example: Human gene for insulin inserted

into bacteria Bacteria are grown and produce human

protein Bacteria are harvested, protein purified Protein sent to pharmacy

We do this with bacteria in AP Biology.

Biotechnology Tools of the Trade Recombinant DNA

Restriction enzymes (sort of like molecular scissors)

Ligase (molecular scotch tape) Gene of interest sequence from donor Cells from future host

With bacteria, almost always add antibiotic resistance with gene of interest So you can use antibiotics to screen out

those who didn’t get “transformed” your payload

Biotech Tools - PCR

Ever notice how on those CSI type shows they get a microscopic sample from a crime scene and then run a zillion tests on it? How do they do that?

PCR – like a Xerox machine for DNA

Electrophoresis

Gel Electrophoresis uses electricity to separate fragments of DNA or protein by size.

Use same restriction enzyme to cut samples so you can compare them

Different sequence of DNA “letters” in each person = different banding pattern on gel

Gel Electrophoresis

Transgenic Organisms

Fishberries – inserting a gene from an arctic fish into strawberries in attempt to act like built in anti-freeze and increase crop yield when it frosts.

Currently, up to 85 percent of U.S. corn is genetically engineered as are 91 percent of soybeans and 88 percent of cotton (cottonseed oil is often used in food products). It has been estimated that upwards of 70 percent of processed foods on supermarket shelves–from soda to soup, crackers to condiments–contain genetically engineered ingredients.  

There are currently no consumer protections in place to ensure you know which products contain genetically modified food.

Cloning

Nucleus from cell taken from adult donor

nucleus removed from fertilized embryo

New hybrid embryo implanted in surrogate mom

Baby born has nuclear DNA from adult donor, but mitochondrial DNA from original ovum donor

Dolly the sheep First cloned

mammal 1997

Not with Humans

Yet

DNA Fingerprints – to remember Sample taken from person Cut with restriction enzymes

Must use the same restriction enzyme for everyone who is going to be compared

Place in Gel and turn on power Electricity pulls the negatively charged

DNA down the field through the gel Compare bands by size in rows

Gene Therapy

How can DNA Fingerprints be used to establish relationships?

Samples from Mom Samples from baby Samples from potential fathers

How is a transgenic organism different than a cloned organism?

Organism contains genes from another species

The goal is to produce those targeted foreign proteins for benefit of the organism

Embryo has original nucleus removed

Replaced with nucleus from donor cell

Placed in surrogate and gestated until birth

Transgenic Cloned

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Biotic Abiotic Biomes Ecosystems Population Community Niche Habitat predator/prey limiting factors

carrying capacity

Decomposers Producers Autotrophs Consumers Heterotrophs food chains food webs primary

succession secondary

succession climax

community global warming pesticide

resistance biomagnificati

on

Biotic / Abiotic

Living factors in the environment Bacteria Protists Fungi Plants Animals

Non-living factors in the environment Weather Temperature Water Humidity rock

Biotic Abiotic

Biomes

The world’s major types of ecosystems – examples include Tundra Taiga (Boreal Forest) Grasslands Deciduous Forest Chapparal Desert Savannah Rainforest

Levels of Organization in Ecology Biosphere Ecosystem Community Population Organism

Niche / Habitat

An organisms role in the environment Interaction Feeding Roosting Breeding Timing of

activities

Home of or area where an organism can be found

Niche Habitat

Same habitat – different niche If two organisms

share a niche they must compete for those limited resources, kill the invader or leave to find another suitable niche

Sometimes that is solved by partitioning resources to avoid competition

Predator / Prey Interactions

This graph is typical of predator prey relationships Too many prey?

Predator population increases

Too many predators? Prey populations

decline Not enough prey?

Predator population declines

Not enough predators? Prey population

booms

Limiting Factors – anything that limits the growth of a population

Biotic Factors that limit population growth Disease Food Parasites predators

Abiotic factors that limit population growth Climate Tornado Drought Hurricane Fire

Density Dependent Limiting Factors

Density Independent Limiting Factors

Exponential Growth – No Limiting Factors

Carrying Capacity

Maximum number of individuals an environment can support

Decomposers

Producers / Autotrophs

Make their own food Ex: plants, algae Chemosynthetic bacteria

Consumers / Heterotrophs

Can not make their own food, so rely on consuming other living things

Food Chain / Food Web

Food webs are complex

Arrows indicate direction of energy flow

Succession

Secondary Succession

Biological Magnification

Pesticide is non-biodegradable

Builds up in food chain

Effects are worst at highest trophic levels

Rachel Carson, “Silent Spring”