Post on 30-Dec-2015
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Memory
Kinds of memory
Declarative Episodic-Semantic
Non-Declarative The relationship between Conscious and
Nonconscious memory Declarative/Non-declarative revisited Implicit learning Explicit/Implicit memory Process Dissociation
Grounds for distinguishing types of memory Phenomenology of memory
Does it seem there are different types? Knowing how vs. knowing that Different kinds of mental experience
Autobiographical General knowledge
Flashbulb memories Tests for memory
Do the same manipulations of independent variables affect each the same?
E.g. episodic vs. semantic Neuropsychology and neuroscience of memory
Results of brain damage fMRI and PET
Declarative/Non-declarative
Declarative vs. Non-declarative (Procedural) Declarative
“Knowing that” Episodic Semantic
Non-declarative “Knowing how”
Episodic/Semantic
Episodic Memory for a specific instance or episode.
Semantic Memory for conceptual information
How are the two related? Overlap of functional similarity (meaning) of
examples (instances) is integrated into a single concept.
Lose the details and retain the gist.
Episodic memory
Memory for events Time and place “Where did you go for vacation last summer?”
Involves autonoetic (self-knowing) awareness
Tests for episodic memory Free recall Serial recall Paired-associate recall Cued recall Recognition Absolute frequency judgments Relative recency judgments Source judgments Metamory judgments
Episodic memory
Factors affecting episodic memory: Encoding Retrieval relationship
Levels of processing Encoding specificity principle Transfer appropriate processing
Generation effect Repetition Spacing Concreteness
As opposed to abstract E.g. pictures better than words
Distinctiveness Bizarre sentences Unusual faces Atypical category members
Episodic memory
Autobiographical memory Diary studies
Linton (1978), White (1982), Wagenaar (1986) Focus on dates, distinctiveness, pleasantness, importance of
events Those recalled best were more unique, emotional, pleasant
Brewer (1988) Ss record events whenever beeper went off Given a cue (time, location, etc.) Those recalled had been rated as more significant, emotional
Episodic memory
Reminiscence bump People remember more events from certain
periods of their life Rubin, Wetzler & Nebes (1986)
Combined the results of four different experiments (N total = 285)
Found a reminiscence bump between 10 and 30 years, when older than 40 years.
Episodic memory
Childhood amnesia Preponderance of
‘firsts’ reminiscence bump
Episodic memory
Autobiographical memories tend to be slow Reconstructed
Good at recognition, but lose the details Barclay & Wellman (1986)
Grad students record everyday events for 4 months Recog test (5 times over 2½ years)
Originals Foils that changed descriptive (surface) details Foils that changed reactions to events Foils that did not correspond to recorded events
Results Recog of duplicates 94% However… Accepted 50% of foils that changed info and 23% of novel foils Got worse with time
Semantic memory
General world knowledge Memory for facts
Does not require time, place E.g. The constellation
Orion contains the stars Betelgeuse and Rigel
Initially new facts may contain episodic content, but will eventually become ‘sourceless’ over time
Typical semantic network Conceptual nodes Spreading activation from
one item to those associated with it
Semantic memory
How long do items stay in semantic memory?
Bahrick (1984) 50 years of second
language attrition Noticeable decrease first
3 years Leveling off Decrease begins again
after about 15 years
The episodic/semantic distinction Interdependence of two memory systems
makes finding evidence for distinction difficult Forgetting
Episodic memory is more prone to forgetting Bahrick
Good chunk of knowledge remains years later However, certain episodic events also appear
very resistant to forgetting Autobiographical “first time” events (reminiscence bump) “Flashbulb” memories
The episodic/semantic distinction Neuropsychology Patients with amnesia
Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory of events before brain injury
Anterograde amnesia: disruption of memory of events occurring after brain injury, especially a disruption in acquiring new long-term memories Cannot remember doing things five minutes later
Anterograde amnesia
H.M. Severe deficit in creating new memories Can learn procedural (non-declarative, anoetic)
tasks Mirror drawing/reading, tower of hanoi
Cannot learn with tasks requiring conscious remembering Where’s Waldo is a nightmare What am I looking for again?
Can’t keep track of what’s going on in the world
Retrograde amnesia
Korsakoff’s syndrome Test memory for TV
programs, famous people, famous events
P.Z. Recall of info from
autobiography Graded loss
The episodic/semantic distinction Episodic, not semantic memory is impaired in amnesia? Not necessarily Anterograde amnesia
Both episodic and semantic information hard to acquire Gabrieli et al (1988) found little learning in H.M.
“deficits observed here point to an association between semantic and episodic memory, and do not lend support to a distinction between them. The acquisition of semantic and episodic information, therefore, appears to depend upon a common memory system”
Korsakoff’s deficits are for both episodic and semantic PZ demonstrates poor recall of the names of scientists in his
discipline, along with his major life events.
So: amnesia = impairment for both episodic and semantic? If both affected with amnesics, is the distinction necessary?
The episodic/semantic distinction K.C.: frontal brain damage due to a
motorcycle accident Suffers both retrograde and anterograde
amnesia for episodic memory though semantic and procedural memory is intact Could remember how to play chess, knew father
taught him and that he and his father played chess
Couldn’t remember ever playing with anyone else or specifics of times played
Semantic Dementia
Progressive fluent aphasia (Hodges et al., 1992) Degenerative pathology inferolateral temporal cortex (relative sparing of
hippocampus in early stages)
Progessive, selective deterioration in semantic memory, affecting verbal and nonverbal aspects of knowledge about objects, people, facts, concepts and word meanings. E.g. Patients response when shown a picture of a giraffe Time 1: A giraffe Time 2: A tall African animal Time 3: A horse Time 4: An animal Time 5: Don’t know.
Episodic memory is relatively preserved (at least early in the course of the illness)
Brain imaging studies Compare pattern of brain activation when someone is
(1) thinking about astronomy (2) personal memory
Different brain regions were active in the two conditions with (1) activating more posterior regions (2) more frontal regions
The episodic/semantic distinction
The episodic/semantic distinction There is something that seems different (subjectively) about
remembering personal information vs. general world knowledge
However, there is little compelling evidence that the distinction reflects the operation of two completely distinct memory systems.
The debate is still active, and the terms are widely used, just not necessarily in the way in which Tulving proposes
Baddeley speculates that “semantic memories” result from an accumulation of similar episodic memories. They become “knowledge” when we are no longer able to retrieve individual learning episodes (sources)
Non-declarative memory
“Knowing how” Encompasses a broad range of human skills and
abilities Classical conditioning Priming Complex problem solving Motor skill learning
A key difference compared to declarative is the time it takes to enter into memory
Not necessarily verbalizable I don’t know, I just do it
Non-declarative memory
Acquisition of procedures Singley & Anderson 1988 Ss (experienced typists but
not with word processing) learned editing skills on a word processor
Planning time is the difference b/t total and execution time Decreases dramatically
over the six days Decrease in execution time
due to decrease in key strokes (not faster)
Stages of Skill Acquisition
Cognitive Develop a “declarative” representation of the skill
Associative Transfer declarative knowledge to motor
performance Explore necessary motor skills
Refine representation of the task Declarative representation is incomplete or inaccurate. Add components to representation
Feedback
Stages of Skill Acquisition
Autonomous Procedure is further refined
Increase in speed and accuracy Practice effects
Fine-tuning Loss of declarative (verbal) representation
Sometimes experts make poor instructors
Non-declarative memory
Transfer Appropriate Processing With episodic memory, people retrieve more info when in
the same mood, place or state as initial learning takes place
Same can apply to procedural memory Kolers 1975, 1976 Inverted sentence reading Even after a year they were still better than when they
started out and better for those sentences from the first time around (allowed for the procedures from last time to be used again)
Kolers & Ostry 1974 Recognition better for inverted sentences if were previously
learned that way
Non-declarative memory
Expertise Highly practiced, domain-specific skills
Chess expert’s interrelated knowledge allows for very quick moves early on Memorized rules for best moves of known chess
board arrangements Expert knowledge includes domain-specific
procedures and large amount of domain-specific declarative knowledge
Non-declarative memory
Summary: People’s initial knowledge is initially in a
declarative state Practice leads to automaticity Transfer of knowledge to procedural
Can occur with or without ‘awareness’ Curran & Keele (1993): visuospatial task Berry & Broadbent (1984)
Cognitive task (control sugar production) Ss improved without explicit knowledge of how
Conscious/Nonconscious Memory Most of our memory at any given time is
nonconscious E.g. who was your 6th grade English teacher?
Even recall itself can be conscious (explicit) or not (implicit)
What is the link between consciousness and memory?
Memory and Consciousness
Episodic
Semantic
Procedural
Autonoetic“self aware”
NoeticAware of info, not origin
Anoetic“Unaware”
Memory System Consciousness
The relationship between types of LTM and varieties of consciousness (Tulving, 1985).
Memory and Consciousness
Each memory system is characterized by a different kind of consciousness
Autonoetic: aware of the event as a part of one’s own past existence
Noetic: aware of and can cognitively operate on objects, events and their relations
Anoetic: temporally and spatially bound to the current situation; “awareness” unnecessary (automatization)
Man with no memory
K.C. No autonoetic consciousness
for before and after a traffic accident Although remembers personal
events, knowledge of past is similarly detached as toward general knowledge (noetic consciousness)
Language skills and semantic memory relatively intact
“Let’s try the question again about the future. What will you be doing tomorrow?”
15 sec pause “I don’t know” “Do you remember the
question?” “About what I’ll be doing
tomorrow?” “Yes. How would you describe
your state of mind when you try to think about it?”
5 sec pause “Blank, I guess.” Regarding yesterday: “same
kind of blankness”
Implicit Learning
Learn systematic (i.e. rules, organization, etc.) information without explicitly applying (or awareness of) knowledge Categories Grammars Spatial relations
Loosely defined as ‘learning without awareness’, though such a definition is problematic
Qualifications: Implicit learning of one task may not compare with that of another
Underlying mechanisms, representations could be different Implicit learning of one task might be possible but not for another
Implicit Learning
The problem of operationalizing implicit learning Defining awareness Support for IL depends on what is used to assess
awareness What about attention? Separating the mechanisms from the products of
learning One system or two?
Still not resolved
Frensch & Runger 2003
Implicit learning
A: No learning without awareness B: Single learning mechanism, contents may or may
not be accessible to consciousness C: Implicit learning process eventually leads to
explicit learning Tennis player notices improved serve, relates to higher
toss D: explicit learning process for control of behavior,
may then provide input for implicit learning mechanism
E: separate, unrelated systems for explicit and implicit learning
Learning Artificial Grammar Reber (1967) used an Artificial
Grammar defined by a series of rules about how letters may be related to one another Group A learned sequences of
letters generated by the grammar Group B learned random letter
sequences Both groups were shown letter
strings, half grammatical and half random letters
Subjects who learned grammatical sequences recognized 79% of the new grammatical sequences
Implicit learning
Other examples of implicit learning Conditioning Priming Anesthesia Subliminal learning Serial RT task
Learn to respond to spatial location of a stimulus which is presented according to some rule (Nissen & Bullemer 1987)
Complex repeating sequence
Implicit learning
Shanks and St. John (1994) Examine the possibility of dissociable
(implicit/explicit ) learning systems Subjects may know something about the task
they are acquiring, however, whether it is enough to give an explicit explanation is a different matter
Though explicit information is available, it may lack the merit for description
Implicit Learning
The subject must not be aware of the association at time of learning
Information Criterion Must show that the information sought in the awareness
test is really responsible for performance change Learning might reflect some other associations that are
explicit
Sensitivity Criterion Must have a measure of unconscious learning that has the
appropriate sensitivity to the learning Must have access to what all is consciously available
Implicit Learning
Subliminal learning Of that which has seemingly been demonstrated,
it does not seem to last long and may be more of perceptual/working memory processing than true learning
Longer lasting effects seen are outweighed greatly by negative results
Classical conditioning Many studies do not address awareness directly,
and those that do suggest contingency is learned only with awareness
Implicit learning
Grammar learning Is verbal report sensitive to test of conscious knowledge?
(Sensitivity criterion) If subjects learned something other than the rules
then asking about the rules may lead to erroneous conclusions (Information criterion)
Servan-Schreiber & Anderson (1990) Strings with gaps T PPP TX VS False alarms for PPPTXTVS 50% of the time Evidence that Ss are only learning particular instances
(explicitly), not unconscious learning of rules
Implicit learning
Anesthesia studies* Same problems with verbal report Different doses for different folks The only instances in which we know for certain in
which someone is UnC there is no learning Shanks & St. John
Although there are some unusual findings out there, the majority of the evidence suggests no learning without awareness
*FYI, it is possible to be conscious during surgery but not remember it afterward.
Explicit/Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory Specific attempt to recall and apply previous
experience Actively encode
Information is used without active encoding. Incidental Memory
Ability to recall information without actively encoding e.g., Source Memory
Implicit Memory Previous exposure to information changes responses made
without direct retrieval
Explicit/Implicit Memory
Evidence from amnesiacs Damage to hippocampus produces profound deficit in ability to
consciously recollect one’s past No new memories? H.M.
Got better at mirror drawing but never knew he’d practiced it Completion tasks show previous influences
Converse situation Confabulation Awareness of memories for non-existent events
The two situations suggest a complex relationship between retention and expression of prior experience, and the awareness of that experience
What about normal folk?
Explicit/Implicit Memory Explicit test of memory
Visual/Auditory presentation Shallow vs. Deep LOP effect
Implicit test of memory E.g. stem completion
Just complete with whatever comes to mind
Modality effect No LOP
C and NonC forms of memory operate differently
Explicit/Implicit Memory
Divided attention at encoding Typically affects explicit
memory more than implicit memory (but see false fame effect)
Memory can occur in the absence of reportable awareness
Conscious (explicit) memory of an event not necessary to affect performance
Implicit Memory
“Unrelated” exposure to information increases familiarity of item in a different context Stem Completion Judgments
Frequency Pleasantness Recency
Priming Readiness to respond to stimuli Familiarity
Implicit Memory
Other Implicit Memory tests/phenomena Perceptual
Mere Exposure Exposure produces a preference.
Perceptual Identification Identifying degraded pictures or sounds
Word-Stem/Fragment Completion _ e m _ _ y
Conceptual Word association Object categorization
Procedural Tower of Hanoi
More Implicit Memory
Jacoby False Fame Effect
Two- phase experiment Phase 1
Read names of non-famous people Bill Knott Mike Clark Stephen Malkmus
Manipulated attentional demands of participants Half normal setting Half had attention divided
Digit monitoring Note when 3 odd numbers in a row
False Fame Effect
Phase 2 Rate the “fame” of names
Old non-famous names from Phase 1 Bill Knott
New non-famous names Hal Hartley
Famous names George Orwell
Informed : “All of the names you read last time were non-famous people.
Some of the non-famous names on this test are names you read previously. If you recognize one of those names, you should respond ‘non-famous.’”
False Fame Effect
Data of interest Rate of misattributions for Old Non-famous items Compared between Full-attention Group and
Divided-attention Group (from Phase 1).
Stephen Malkmus
Famous Non-famous
False Fame Effect
Proportion rated as famous
Divatt group Despite tougher criterion
for calling a name famous (as evidenced by less likelihood of calling new nonfamous names as famous), still more likely to call previously seen names as famous
Fame test New
Famous
New
Non-famous
Old
Non-famous
Full .62 .31 .19
Divided .49 .17 .27
Recognition test
New
Non-famous
Old
Non-famous
Full .00 .63
Divided .11 .30
False Fame Effect
Results Divided-attention Group had more misattributions than Full-
attention Group Also when divided attention at test rather than encoding
Full-attention Group could establish strong contextual details at acquisition. At recognition, the details provided for correct rejection. Recollection
Divided attention prevented contextual details. At recognition, undifferentiated information lead only to a feeling of
familiarity Familiarity is then misattributed to the task at hand (fame).
The False Fame Effect is product of using past experience without recollection. Implicit Memory
Separating Conscious and Nonconscious memory Process Dissociation Framework (PDP)
Jacoby again Some conscious processes may influence
nonconscious processes and vice versa Typical explicit or implicit memory tests do
not address this
Process Dissociation Framework Another conceptualization of Implicit-Explicit distinction
Recollection Conscious detail-oriented aspect of experience
Familiarity Undifferentiated unconscious aspect of experience Feeling
Both processes can (and do) contribute to any memory task
Assumes independent conscious (C) and unconscious (U) contributions to memory
A means to estimate the relative contributions of conscious (recollection) processes and nonconscious (familiarity) to some task Intentional vs. automatic
Please study these words carefully.
THREADPINEYESEWINGSHARPPOINTPRICKTHIMBLEHAYSTACKTHORNHURTINJECTIONSYRINGECLOTHKNITTING
Now…
Recall! As you do so give a confidence rating each Do so for the following also plus remember/know
judgments (specifically remember or just know it was in there somewhere): THREAD NEEDLE POINT THIMBLE THORN