Taniya Thomas

11699014

LONG TERM MEMORYCapacity, Coding , Retention

Duration, Forgetting and Retrieval of information

CONTENTSCAPACITY

CODING

RETENTION DURATION

FORGETTING

RETREIVAL OF INFORMATION

MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

“the knowledge of a former state of mind after it has once dropped from consciousness.”(William James,1890)

Amnesic patients – difficulty to form new memories but able to recall the past.

William James (1980)- principles of psychology

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)- 3 stored model

LONG TERM MEMORY

CAPACITY OF LTMvirtually unlimited

amount of information

synapses as a memory measure and put it in a range of equivalent to a million gigabytes (Merkle,1988).

Wilder Penfield- Gave electrical stimulation -brain-conscious patients afflicted with epilepsy- patients sometimes would appear to recall memories from their childhoods- suggested to Penfield that long term memories might be permanent.

EVIDENCES

Did you know?Permastore- refers to

the very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language (Bahrick, 1984a, 1984b; Bahrick et al., 1993) and of mathematics (Bahrick & Hall, 1991).

LTM has a large capacity storage of information

Information's are not available at onceIt can be linked to failure in retrieval of

information.Encoding plays a major role in storage

So, we can infer the following:

Levels of processingExperimental findings by Craik and LockhartPictorical and graphical representation of the

resultsExperimental findings by Alan Baddeley.Fisher and Craik comparison of semantic and

acoustic encodingVisual encoding- a study by frostElaborative encoding theoryACT Model

coding

CODINGIt is the process of placing

information into what is believed to be a limitless memory reservoir which can occur for a specific stimuli as well as for a general stimuli(Patricia Casey, Brendan Kelly, 1985)

Levels of processing (Craik & Lockhart 1972)

departure from the three-stores model of memory

4 questionsYes or no responses

EVIDENCE

Is it capital letter table TABLE

Does the word rhyme with weight crate market

Is the word a type of fish Shark heaven

Does the word fit in the sentence “the man peeled the -------------

orange

roof

a b c d

Graphical representation of the results

Graphemic level

Phonetic level

Semantic level

Elaborative level

Baddeley experiment (1966)

Participants were given 4 sets of words to recall, set A & C being the experimental conditions and B & D the control

Set A acoustically similarSet B acoustically dissimilarSet C semantically similarSet D semantically dissimilar

Words in each list had parallel frequency in language use

Participants were presented with a word and then have to determine whether that word rhymes with another word (acoustic encoding).

For semantic encoding, they have to determine whether that word belongs to a given category or fits into a given sentence.

Performance is greater for semantic retrieval than for acoustic retrieval

Fisher & Craik, 1977

People suffering from schizophrenia often suffer from memory impairments because they do not process words semantically. (Ragland et al.,2003).

in persons with autism, information may not be encoded semantically, or at least, not to the same extent as in people who do not have autism (Toichi & Kamio, 2002).

Did you know?Self reference

effect:high levels of recall when asked to relate words meaningfully to the participants by determining whether the words describe them.

Encoding of information in long-term memory is not exclusively semantic.

Participants in a study received 16 drawings of objects, including four items of clothing, four animals, four vehicles, and four items of furniture (Frost, 1972).

Manipulated visual informationThe drawings differed in visual orientation.Four were angled to the left, four angled to the right, four

horizontal, and four vertical. Items were presented in random order. Participants were

asked to recall them freely. The order of participants’ responses showed effects of

both semantic and visual categories. These results suggested that participants were encoding

visual as well as semantic information. In fact, people are able to store thousands of images

VISUAL ENCODING

elaboration of the trace is assumed to take place simultaneously in the structural, acoustic and semantic domains, rather than in sequence

This theory assumes that any new input will be subjected to several different types of processing at the same time, and that depth of processing depends on the amount of elaboration within each processing domain

elaborative encoding theory (Craik and Tulving, 1975)

ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT MODEL

Proposed by john AndersonAlready learned encoding – match-

execution performance loopDeclarative encoding – storage-

retreival performance loop

GENERATION EFFECTGenerate-Active

production of information

Observed phenomenon that are generated are more likely to recall

Repetition of a set of stimuli over a space of time is more beneficial

ENHANCERS OF ENCODINGSPACING EFFECT

AttentionSemanticsElaborationPersonal interestThreatMotivationEmotional stateContext

Factors affecting encoding

Neurological basisHippocampus- LTM

formation and consolidation

Medial temporal lobe- episodic encoding

Frontal lobe- elaborative processing

CONSOLIDATIONModification of

representationsSleep cycleMedial temporal

lobes

Retention durationHow long?Hermann ebbinghaus CVC trigramForget curve

Bahrick H.P. 1984 A group of people who studied Spanish in their life

3-6 yrs after class drastic loss 6-30 years after class no loss 30-35 years after the class a little loss of

information

RETENTION DURATION OF SEMANTIC MEMORY

1. Information in long term memory if not rehearsed , decay occurs

2. Residual amount is intact3. The final loss could be of some cognitive

deficits due to aging

conclusions

Maintenance rehearsalElaborative rehearsal

REHEARSAL

FORGETTING

DECAY THEORYRefer to Hermann

Ebbinghaus studyMemory traces decay Trace is a physical or

chemical change in nervous system

Interference theoryInterruption by

previously learned or newly learned material

Proactive and retroactive interference

Retreival failure theoryInformation is in the

long term but cant be accessed

Retrieval cue is absent

Cue can be external or internal

principle of categorization This states that material organized into categories or

other units is more easily recalled than information with no apparent organization.

Bousfield (1953) presented participants with a list of 60 words. The words came from four categories—animals, names, professions, and vegetables

presented in scrambled order. participants recall the words in an organized fashion.even if the material doesn’t have apparent

organization, asking people to organize it into their own subjective categories improves recall (Mandler, 1967).

RETREIVAL OF INFORMATION

BANK

ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE

BANK

Context dependent memoryGodden and Baddeley (1975)presented lists of 40 unrelated words to 16 scuba

divers, all wearing scuba gear. Divers learned some of the lists on the shore and the

others 20 feet under water. They were later asked to recall the words either in

the same environment where they were learned or in the other environment.

Results showed that recall was best when the environment was the same as the learning environment.

State dependent retrievalMaterial learned while someone is chemically

intoxicated (for example, by alcohol or marijuana) is usually recalled better when the person recreates that state (J. E. Eich, 1980)

Mood dependent retrievalBower (1981) claimed that a person would

recall more information if he or she were in the same mood at recall time as at encoding time

Cue overloadThe basic principle here is that a retrieval cue

is most effective when it is highly distinctive and not related to any other target memories.

For example, we all remember dramatic, unusual events better than we do routine events

Capacity of LTMEncoding of LTMRetention duration of LTMForgettingRetrieval of information

SUMMARY

Goldstein, E. Bruce. (2011, 2008). Cognitive Psychology connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. (3rd ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

Sternberg, Robert. .J., Sternberg, Karin. & Mio, Jeff. . (2012, 2009). Cognitive Psychology. (6th ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

Galotti, K. .M. . (2008, 2004). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory. (4th ed.). United States of America: Thomson Wadsworth.

Matlin, M. .W. . (2009). Cognition. (7th ed.). United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Riegler, B. R., Riegler, G. L. R. (2008). Cognitive Psychology Applying the Science of the Mind. (2nd ed.). India: Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd.

REFERENCES