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Logogram 1

Logogram

A logogram, or logograph, is a grapheme which represents a word or a morpheme (the smallest meaningful unit of

language). This stands in contrast to phonograms, which represent phonemes (speech sounds) or combinations of

phonemes, and determinatives, which mark semantic categories.

Logograms are often commonly known also as "ideograms". Strictly speaking, however, ideograms represent ideas

directly rather than words and morphemes, and none of the logographic systems described here are truly ideographic.

Since logograms are visual symbols representing words rather than the sounds or phonemes that make up the word, it

is relatively easier to remember or guess the sound of alphabetic written words, while it might be relatively easier to

remember or guess the meaning of logograms. Another feature of logograms is that a single logogram may be used

by a plurality of languages to represent words with similar meanings. While disparate languages may also use the

same or similar alphabets, abjads, abugidas, syllabaries and the like, the degree to which they may share identical

representations for words with disparate pronunciations is much more limited.

Logographic systems

Egyptian hieroglyphs, which have their origins as

logograms.

Logographic systems, or logographies, include the earliest true writing

systems; the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa,

China, and Central America used some form of logographic writing.

A purely logographic script would be impractical for most languages,

and none is known apart from one devised for the artificial language

Toki Pona, a purposely limited language with only 120 morphemes. A

more recent attempt is Zlango, intended for use in text messaging,

currently including around 300 "icons". All logographic scripts ever

used for natural languages rely on the rebus principle to extend arelatively limited set of logograms: A subset of characters is used for

their phonetic values, either consonantal or syllabic. The term

logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of

these scripts when the phonetic domain is the syllable. In both Ancient

Egyptian hieroglyphs and in Chinese, there has been the additional

development of fusing such phonetic elements with determinatives;

such "radical and phonetic" characters make up the bulk of the script,

and both languages relegated simple rebuses to the spelling of foreign loan words and words from non-standard

dialects.

Logographic writing systems include:

Logoconsonantal scripts

These are scripts in which the graphemes may be extended phonetically according to the consonants of the

words they represent, ignoring the vowels. For example, Egyptian was used to write both s "duck" and s

"son", though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same apart from their consonants. The

primary examples of logoconsonantal scripts are,

*Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic: Ancient Egypt

Logosyllabic scripts

These are scripts in which the graphemes represent morphemes, often polysyllabic morphemes, but when

extended phonetically represent single syllables. They include,

*Anatolian hieroglyphs: Luwian

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anatolian_hieroglyphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luwian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luwian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anatolian_hieroglyphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demotic_%28Egyptian%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hieratichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egyptian_hieroglyphshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radical_%28Chinese_character%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Determinativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hieroglyphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rebushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Text_messaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zlangohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toki_Ponahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Papyrus_Ani_curs_hiero.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syllabaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abugidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abjadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ideogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semanticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Determinativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phonogram_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Word_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grapheme

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Logogram 2

*Cuneiform: Sumerian, Akkadian, other Semitic languages, Elamite, Hittite, Luwian, Hurrian, and Urartian

*Dongba script written with Geba script: Naxi language (Dongba itself is pictographic)

*Tangut script: Tangut language

*Shui script: Shui language

*Maya glyphs: Chorti, Yucatec, and other Classic Maya languages

*Yi (classical): various Yi languages

*Han characters: Chinese languages, Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese

*Derivatives of Han characters:

**Ch nm: Vietnam

**Geba script: Naxi

**Jurchen script: Jurchen

**Khitan large script: Khitan

**Sawndip: Zhuang

None of these systems is purely logographic. This can be illustrated with Chinese. Not all Chinese characters

represent morphemes: some morphemes are composed of more than one character. For example, the Chinese word

for spider, zhzh, was created by fusing the rebus zhzh (literally "know cinnabar") with the 'bug'

determinative . Neither * zh nor * zh can be used separately (except to stand in for in poetry). In

Archaic Chinese, one can find the reverse: a single character representing more than one morpheme. An example is

Archaic Chinese hjwangs, a combination of a morpheme hjwang meaning king (coincidentally also written )

and a suffix pronounced s. (The suffix is preserved in the modern falling tone.) In modern Mandarin, bimorphemic

syllables are always written with two characters, for example hur "flower (diminutive)".

A peculiar system of logograms developed within the Pahlavi scripts (developed from the Aramaic abjad) used to

write Middle Persian during much of the Sassanid period; the logograms were composed of letters that spelled out

the word in Aramaic but were pronounced as in Persian (for instance, the combination "M-L-K" would be

pronounced "shah"). These logograms, called hozwrishn, were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of

Persia and the adoption of a variant of the Arabic alphabet.

Logograms are used in modern shorthand to represent common words. In addition, the numerals and mathematical

symbols used in alphabetic systems are logograms1 one, 2 two, +plus, = equals, and so on. In English, the

ampersand & is used for and and et (such as &c for et cetera), % forpercent, $ for dollar, # for number, for euro,

forpound, etc.

Semantic and phonetic dimensions

Further information: Determinative

All historical logographic systems include a phonetic dimension, as it is impractical to have a separate basic

character for every word or morpheme in a language.[1]

In some cases, such as cuneiform as it was used for

Akkadian, the vast majority of glyphs are used for their sound values rather than logographically. Many logographic

systems also have a semantic/ideographic component, called "determinatives" in the case of Egyptian and "radicals"

in the case of Chinese.[2]

Typical Egyptian usage is to augment a logogram, which may potentially represent several words with different

pronunciations, with a determinative to narrow down the meaning, and a phonetic component to specify the

pronunciation. In the case of Chinese, the vast majority of characters are a fixed combination of a radical that

indicates its semantic category, plus a phonetic to give an idea of the pronunciation. The Mayan system usedlogograms with phonetic complements like the Egyptian, while lacking ideographic components.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Determinativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Et_ceterahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampersandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shorthandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabic_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perso-Arabic_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muslim_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muslim_conquest_of_Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frahang-i_Pahlavighttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aramaic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sassanid_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Persianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abjadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aramaic_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pahlavi_scriptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhuang_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhuang_logogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khitan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khitan_large_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurchen_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurchen_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naxihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geba_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_n%C3%B4mhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_characterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yi_script%23Classical_Yihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classic_Maya_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yucatec_Maya_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chorti_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maya_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shui_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shui_script%23Shui_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tangut_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tangut_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pictogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naxi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geba_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dongba_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urartian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurrian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luwian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hittite_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elamite_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akkadian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cuneiform_script

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Logogram 3

Chinese characters

Chinese scholars have traditionally classified Chinese characters into six types by etymology.

The first two types are "single-body", meaning that the character was created independently of other Chinese

characters. "Single-body" pictograms and ideograms make up only a small proportion of Chinese logograms. More

productive for the Chinese script were the two "compound" methods, i.e. the character was created from assembling

different characters. Despite being called "compounds", these logograms are still single characters, and are written to

take up the same amount of space as any other logogram. The final two types are methods in the usage of characters

rather than the formation of characters themselves.

Excerpt from a 1436 primer on Chinese

characters

1. The first type, and the type most often associated with Chinese

writing, are pictograms, which are pictorial representations of the

morpheme represented, e.g. for "mountain".

2. The second type are ideograms that attempt to visualize abstract

concepts, such as "up" and "down". Also considered

ideograms are pictograms with an ideographic indicator; for

instance, is a pictogram meaning "knife", while is an

ideogram meaning "blade".

3. Radical-radical compounds in which each element of the

character (called radical) hints at the meaning. For example,

"rest" is composed of the characters for "man" () and "tree" (),

with the intended idea of someone leaning against a tree, i.e. resting.

4. Radical-phonetic compounds, in which one component (the

radical) indicates the general meaning of the character, and the other

(the phonetic) hints at the pronunciation. An example is

(Chinese: ling), where the phonetic ling indicates the

pronunciation of the character and the radical ("wood") itsmeaning of "supporting beam". Characters of this type constitute

around 90% of Chinese logograms.[3]

5. Changed-annotation characters are characters which were originally the same character but have bifurcated

through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, can mean both "music"(pinyin:yu ) and

"pleasure" (pinyin: l).

6. Improvisational characters (lit. "improvised-borrowed-words") come into use when a native spoken word has

no corresponding character, and hence another character with the same or a similar sound (and often a close

meaning) is "borrowed"; occasionally, the new meaning can supplant the old meaning. used to be a

pictographic word meaning "nose", but was borrowed to mean "self". It is now used almost exclusively to mean

"self", while the "nose" meaning survives only in set-phrases and more archaic compounds. Because of their

derivational process, the entire set of Japanese kana can be considered to be of this character, hence the name

kana ( ; is a simplified form of but used in Korea and Japan).

The most productive method of Chinese writing, the radical-phonetic, was made possible by ignoring certain

distinctions in the phonetic system of syllables. In Old Chinese, post-final ending consonants /s/ and // were

typically ignored; thesedeveloped into tones in Middle Chinese, which were likewise ignored when new characters

were created. Also ignored were differences in aspiration (between aspirated vs. unaspirated obstruents, and voiced

vs. unvoiced sonorants); the Old Chinese difference between type-A and type-B syllables (often described as

presence vs. absence of palatalization or pharyngealization); and sometimes, voicing of initial obstruents and/or the

presence of a medial /r/ after the initial consonant. In earlier times, greater phonetic freedom was generally allowed.

During Middle Chinese times, newly created characters tended to match pronunciation exactly, other than the tone

often by using as the phonetic component a character that itself is a radical-phonetic compound.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palatalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharyngealizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstruenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstruenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharyngealizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palatalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obstruenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tonal_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semanticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orthographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radical_%28Chinese_character%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ideogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pictogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chineseprimer3.png

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Logogram 4

Note that due to the long period of language evolution, such component "hints" within characters as provided by the

radical-phonetic compounds are sometimes useless and may be misleading in modern usage. As an example, based

on "each", pronounced mi in Standard Mandarin, are the characters "to humiliate", "to regret" and

"sea", pronounced w, hu and hi respectively in Mandarin. Three of these characters were pronounced very

similarly in Old Chinese /m/() /m/() /m/() according to a recent reconstruction by William

Baxter[4]

but sound changes in the intervening 3,000 years or so (including two different dialectal developments, in

the case of the last two characters) have resulted in radically different pronunciations.

Chinese characters used in Japanese and Korean

Within the context of the Chinese language, Chinese characters by and large represent words and morphemes rather

than pure ideas; however, the adoption of Chinese characters by the Japanese and Korean languages (where they are

known as kanji and hanja, respectively) have resulted in some complications to this picture.

Many Chinese words, composed of Chinese morphemes, were borrowed into Japanese and Korean together with

their character representations; in this case, the morphemes and characters were borrowed together. In other cases,

however, characters were borrowed to represent native Japanese and Korean morphemes, on the basis of meaning

alone. As a result, a single character can end up representing multiple morphemes of similar meaning but different

origins across several languages. Because of this, kanji and hanja are sometimes described as morphographic writing

systems.

Advantages and disadvantages

Separating writing and pronunciation

The main difference between logograms and other writing systems is that the graphemes aren't linked directly to

their pronunciation. An advantage of this separation is that one doesn't need to understand the pronunciation or

language of the writer to understand it. The reader will recognise the meaning of 1, whether it is called one, ichi or

wid in the language of the writer. Likewise, people speaking different Chinese dialects may not understand each

other in speaking, but can to a significant extent in writing even if they don't write in standard Chinese. Therefore, in

China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan prior to modern times, communication by writing ( ) was the norm of

international trade and diplomacy.

This separation, however, also has the great disadvantage of requiring the memorization of the logograms when

learning to readand write, separately from the pronunciation. Though not an inherent feature of logograms but due

to its unique history of development, Japanese has the added complication that almost every logogram has more than

one pronunciation. Conversely, a phonetic character set is written precisely as it is spoken, but with the disadvantage

that slight pronunciation differences introduce ambiguities. Many alphabetic systems such as those of Greek, Latin,

Italian, Spanish and Finnish make the practical compromise of standardizing how words are written whilemaintaining a nearly one-to-one relation between characters and sounds. Both English and French orthography are

more complicated than that and character combinations are often pronounced in multiple ways, usually depending on

their history. Hangul, the Korean language writing system, is an example of an alphabet that was designed to replace

the logogrammic hanja in order to increase literacy. The latter is now rarely used in Korea.

According to government-commissioned research, the most commonly used 3,500 characters listed in PRC's "Chart

of Common Characters of Modern Chinese" ( ) cover 99.48% of a two-million-word sample. As

for the case of traditional Chinese characters, 4,808 characters are listed in the "Chart of Standard Forms of Common

National Characters" ( ) by the Ministry of Education of ROC, while 4,759 in the "Soengjung

Zi Zijing Biu" ( ) by the Education and Manpower Bureau of Hong Kong, both of which are intended

to be taught during elementary and junior secondary education. Education after elementary school includes not as

many new characters as new words, which are mostly combination of two or more already-learned characters.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i_H%C3%A0ny%C7%94_Ch%C3%A1ngy%C3%B2ng_Z%C3%ACbi%C7%8Eohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hangulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_orthographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_orthographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vernacular_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphographichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kanjihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sound_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Baxterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Baxterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_Mandarin

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Logogram 5

Characters in information technology

Inputting complex characters can be cumbersome on electronic devices due to a practical limitation in the number of

input keys. There exist various input methods for entering logograms, either by breaking them up into their

constituent parts such as with the Cangjie or Wubi method of typing Chinese, or using phonetic systems such as

Bopomofo or Pinyin where the word is entered as pronounced and then selected from a list of logograms matching it.

While the former method is (linearly) faster, it is more difficult to learn. With the Chinese alphabet system however,the strokes forming the logogram are typed as they are normally written, and the corresponding logogram is then

entered.

Also due to the number of glyphs, in programming and computing in general, more memory is needed to store each

grapheme as the character set is larger. As a comparison, ISO 8859 requires only one byte for each grapheme, while

the Basic Multilingual Plane encoded in UTF-8 requires up to three bytes. On the other hand, English words, for

example, average five characters and a space per word[5]

and thus need six bytes for every word. Since many

logograms contain more than one grapheme, it is not clear which is more memory-efficient. Variable-width

encodings allow a unified character encoding standard such as Unicode to use only the bytes necessary to represent a

character, reducing the overhead that follows merging large character sets with smaller ones.

References

[1] Most have glyphs with predominantly syllabic values, called logosyllabic, though Egyptian had predominantly consonantal or

poly-consonantal values, and is thus called logoconsonantal.

[2] "Determinative" is the more generic term, however, and some authors use it for Chinese as well (e.g. William Boltz in Daniels and Bright,

1996:194).

[3] Li, Y., Kang, J.S., 1993. "Analysis of phonetics of the ideophonetic characters in modern Chinese". In: Chen, Y. (Ed.),Information Analysis

of Usage of Characters in Modern Chinese. Shanghai Education Publisher, Shanghai, pp. 8498. (Chinese)

[4] (http://lodel. ehess.fr/crlao/document. php?id=1217), accessed April 22, 2011

[5] "Sentence and word length" (http://hearle.nahoo. net/Academic/Maths/Sentence.html). . Retrieved 2007-05-27.

DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaii Press.

ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.

Hannas, William C. (1997).Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X.

Hoffman, Joel M. (2004).In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. NYU Press.

ISBN 0-8147-3690-4., Chapter 3.

Williams and Bright, The World's Writing Systems, Oxford, 1996.

External links

(http://iea.cass.cn/mzwz/charlist.htm)

- Ancient Writing Library (http://www.for.aichi-pu. ac.jp/museum/)

Chinese Script and Language (http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chinese.htm#characters)

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chinese.htm#charactershttp://www.for.aichi-pu.ac.jp/museum/http://iea.cass.cn/mzwz/charlist.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_DeFrancishttp://hearle.nahoo.net/Academic/Maths/Sentence.htmlhttp://lodel.ehess.fr/crlao/document.php?id=1217http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unicodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variable-width_encodinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variable-width_encodinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UTF-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basic_Multilingual_Planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ISO_8859http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinyinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bopomofohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wubi_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cangjie_input_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Input_method

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Article Sources and Contributors 6

Article Sources and ContributorsLogogram Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440882879 Contributors: 2e1a0, ABCD, Abc root, Altenmann, Amadh, Aminullah, Andre Engels, Angr, Avitohol, BabelStone,

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